word image
Bachelor thesis

Assessin­g the commerci­al value of a persona in reality TV as a trademar­k

8.573 Words / ~41 pages sternsternsternsternstern_0.5 Author Lena F. in Mar. 2011
<
>
Download
Genre/category

Bachelor thesis
Business Studies

University, School

Universität Paderborn

Grade, Teacher, Year

Prof. Böhler

Author / Copyright
Lena F. ©
Metadata
Price 8.50
Format: pdf
Size: 0.53 Mb
Without copy protection
Rating
sternsternsternsternstern_0.5
ID# 5430







University of Paderborn

Faculty of Business Administration and Economics

Department of Law

Business English

Thesis Advisor/Assessor: Prof. Dr. Wilfried Böhler


Assessing the commercial value of a persona in reality TV as a trademark


A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science (B. Sc.)

in “Business Administration and Economics”


Paderborn, August 2nd, 2010


By

Declaration of Authorship

I certify that the bachelor thesis presented here is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original and the result of my own investigations, except as acknowledged, and has not been submitted, either in part or whole, for a degree at this or any other University.


Paderborn, August 2nd, 2010



Abstract


Celebrities are no longer used to be known as being just a simple part of music media or movie entertainment. They are not defined only by their work or performance in media but rather by their appearance in advertising, charities, award and reality TV shows.

In the following thesis, I want to investigate and document the common literature’s consensus of a persona’s or to be precise celebrity’s commercial value beyond the traditional tools of advertising or rather marketing, namely in reality TV formats.

Additionally, a priority is to find out, whether a celebrity can be denoted as a trademark or alternatively if his or her personality consists of trademark characteristic traits to claim him-/herself as a human brand.


Keywords: Celebrity, reality TV, marketing, trademark


TABLE OF CONTENTS


Declaration of Authorship

AbstractI

TABLE OF CONTENTSII

LIST OF TABLESIV

LIST OF FIGURESV

CHAPTER 1 Introduction1

1.1 Introduction.1

1.2 Motivation1

1.3 Objectives2

1.4 Overview of the Thesis2

CHAPTER 2 Celebrity and Celebrities – a discourse4

2.1 Celebrities – very important people ?4

2.1.1 Definition4

2.1.2 Forms of celebrity6

2.2 Celebrity Endorsement8

2.2.1 Definition8

2.2.2 Forms of celebrity endorsement8

2.2.3 Models and theoretical concepts9

2.2.3.1 Source credibility and attractiveness9

2.2.3.2 Match-Up Hypothesis10

2.2.3.3 Model of Meaning Transfer11

2.2.3.4 Multiple Brand and Celebrity Endorsement12

2.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of celebrity endorsement12

2.3 Celebrity Entrepreneurship15

CHAPTER 3 The celebrity as a trademark – possibilities and limitations16

3.1 Historical context16

3.2 Legal framework17

3.2.1 USA17

3.2.2 United Kingdom18

3.2.3 Australia19

CHAPTER 4 Advertising effects beyond commercials21

4.1 Social networking21

4.2 Movies, music and politics22

CHAPTER 5 Reality TV23

5.1 Definition23

5.2 Forms of reality TV23

5.3 The illusion of “reality”25

CHAPTER 6 Assessing of a celebrity’s value27

6.1 Referring to reality TV28

6.2 Case Study29

CHAPTER 7 Conclusion and Outlook30

7.1 Summary30

7.2 Recommendations30

7.3 Outlook30

References32


LIST OF TABLES


Download Assessin­g the commerci­al value of a persona in reality TV as a trademar­k
• Click on download for the complete and text
• This is a sharing plattform for papers
Upload your paper and receive this one for free
• Or you can buy simply this text

Table 1 Google Zeitgeist ranking of fastest rising and

fastest falling keywords “googled” in 2009 (USA) Page 4


Table 2 Davie Brown Index: Top Rated New York

Celebrities in 2006; adopted from McDonald (2006) Page 27


LIST OF FIGURES


Figure 1 Meaning Transfer Model, adopted from McCracken (1989) Page 9


CHAPTER 1 Introduction


1.1 Introduction

“I think the celebrities are part of the shift from the supermodel moment, and they are bringing new energy to the industry, . They are our ambassadors of fashion now, and they use their fame and notoriety and celebrity to bring attention to the industry and to the brands -- whether they are making them, selling them or wearing them.”(Mallis)


Fern Mallis, former Vice President of IMG fashion as well as former Vice President of marketing for IMG models and contemporaneously current head of her own consultancy company Fern Mallis LLC., puts it in a nutshell: in the past few years, a paradigm shift could be recognized in the changing “purpose” of VIPs, celebrities and so called It-girls. Being as actors/actresses/musicians/politics on the people’s mind is now more likely to be history than present. Heidi Klum, Eva Longoria and David Beckham are examples for celebrities who earn most of their money by advertising and hosting TV shows. Their faces doesn’t represent the films or business they work for, but their own image in the media world. Celebrity Endorsement and Celebrity Sponsoring became routine caused by many direct and indirect factors. The markets are saturated and marketers have the task to find new tools for increasing sales. One possibility is the assignment of celebrities beyond commercials in reality TV as (in-)direct ambassadors for several brands for example by wearing the latest fashion creations on the red carpet and on the stage of singing contest shows like “American Idol”. Furthermore, celebrities represent not only the brands they were contracted for but also their own personality – a differentiation in some cases is nearly impossible.


1.2 Motivation

Inspired by the paradigm shift in the economic relevance of celebrities, this thesis looks into the mentioned phenomenon and analyzes marketing tools using the fame of well-known people in public to merchandise commodities, strengthen the brand awareness and loyalty. Moreover the aspect of personality protection meaning the distinction between the advertising work as such and the image of one’s person plays a decisive role in current law cases and thematizes legal regulations companies have to consider when using a celebrity’s name.

Further plays the behavior of celebrities in reality TV formats an immense role when investigating indirect effects on the shopping attitudes of key costumers and self-promotion of the star him-/herself.


1.3 Objectives

By analyzing the influence of celebrities and other public figures in reality TV, negative as well as positive dependencies on the consumer’s shopping behavior can be clarified. Marketing and sales manager are addressed directly to use the thesis’ findings for their handling with celebrities who represent their products in reality TV and commercials as well.

Furthermore, the legal use of a celebrities “name” should be revealed. A sensitization in dealing with the right use of celebrity endorsers and the legal assignment of a celebrity’s name in consideration of the personality rights should be achieved. At the end should be the question answered whether a celebrity’s image could function as a trademark especially in reality TV.


1.4 Overview of the Thesis

This chapter provides a short introduction into the thesis’ topic by starting with the current status of celebrities in society and their transformation from very important people to “living trademarks”.

Chapter 2 presents facts regarding celebrity and celebrities by defining the most important keywords and analyzing possible marketing tools regarding the commercial use of celebrities. Additionally, four models are introduced to clarify the impact of celebrity endorsement.

Chapter 3 describes the phenomenon of reality TV, its forms and gives a short critical review.

Afterwards, chapter 4 demonstrates possible advertising effects caused by celebrities in the new economy of social networking as well as in traditional entertainment branches.

The following chapter 5 investigates whether there is a possibility to equalize the celebrity’s personality with a trademark/brand. Legal regulations in the USA, UK and Australia are specified as related to the personality protection.

Chapter 6 completes the discourse with a conclusion and an outlook as well as a recommendation.


Chapter 2 Celebrity and Celebrities – a discourse


Beginning with a theoretical background, the term “persona” has to be described initially.

Alluding to the internet dictionary platform “ ” ( Web, 6-12-2010), a persona is multi-faceted described as:

1.      “A voice or character representing the speaker in a literary work

2.      The role that one assumes or displays in public or society; one's public image or personality, as distinguished from the inner self

3.      a character in a play, novel, etc.”

The first and the last approach center the function of a human being in artistic work denoted by a scripted action in a nonrealistic world in the majority of the cases. Reverting to the thesis’ issue, the second alternative definition harmonizes the most. Based on that, a persona could be characterized as a celebrity or a person well-known to the society who displays a specific image outwards.

The thesis’ focus will be on celebrities and synonyms such as superstars. Nevertheless ordinary or not well-known people will be considered at some points during this thesis because they can assume public roles too. The next step is to make clear how celebrities are defined and which role they take on in marketing.


2.1 Celebrities – very important people?


The terminus “celebrity” is really enigmatic. Deriving from the French word “célèbre”, meaning “well known in public”, as well as the Latin word “celere”, containing the words “fame” and “being thronged” (Rojek, 2001, p. 9), the term includes two faces of the same coin: “one day you’re in, the next day you’re out” - citing Heidi Klum, German supermodel and hostess of US fashion reality TV show “Project Runway”. The rise and fall of a nowadays celebrity is a daily occurrence while the distance between both status seems to narrow. The fast moving pop culture celebrates literally promising newcomers, turning them into overnight superstars.

In nowadays media sector, nearly any type of individuals can become famous without exhibiting special skills or talent (Nüesch, 2007, p. 83).

However, fame is but a transient shadow, other upcoming talents will assume the position of former acclaimed stars.

Extending the definition to other parts of public life, politicians and famous manager could be also denominated as celebrities though it seems like media stars get more attention in direct comparison.

The tables below emphasize the enormous influence of actual celebrities in the social and political interest. Moreover, it gets obvious that politicians are in little demand compared to those media stars such as Michael Jackson and Lady Gaga (Sarah Palin and John McCain made the 4th and 1st rank on the fastest falling keywords).


Google.com – Fastest Rising

Google.com – Fastest Falling

1. twitter

1. john mccain

2. michael jackson

2. olympics

3. facebook

3. heath ledger

4. hulu

4. barack obama

5. hi5

5. sarah palin

6. glee

6. circuit city

7. paranormal activity

7. ron paul

8. natasha richardson

8. iron man

9. farrah fawcett

9. spore

10. lady gaga

10. wii fit

Google.com - Celebrity Tweeps (most searched Twitter accounts)

1. miley cyrus

2. lance armstrong

3. taylor swift

4. ashton kutcher

5. shaq

6. selena gomez

7. john mayer

8. lindsay lohan

9. demi lovato

10. bill simmons

Table 1: Google Zeitgeist ranking of fastest rising and fastest falling keyword “googled” in 2009 (USA)


2.1.2 Forms of celebrity

According to Rojek, five main types of celebrity status are distinguished:

1. ascribed celebrity

2. achieved celebrity

3. attributed celebrity

4. Celetoid

5. Celeactors

Ascribed celebrity concerns lineage: status typically follows from bloodline. The celebrity of Caroline Kennedy or Prince William stems from their line of biological descent. It is why kings and queens in earlier social formations commanded automatic respect and veneration. Individuals may add to or subtract from their ascribed status by virtue of their voluntary actions, but the foundation of their ascribed celebrity is predetermined. […] Achieved celebrity derives from the perceived accomplishments of the individual in open competition. […] In the public realm they are recognized as individuals who possess rare talents or skills.

However, achieved celebrity is not exclusively a matter of special talent or skill. In some cases it is largely the result of the concentrated representation of an individual as noteworthy or exceptional by cultural intermediaries. When this is so, it is attributed celebrity.” (Rojek, 2001, p. 17/18). Moreover, it seems that these three status can also be “combined” to hybrid forms.

Susan Boyle, contestant on reality TV show “Britain’s Got Talent” (who finally made the second place), gain attributed as well as achieved celebrity. She is known for her musical talent as well as being a figure in reality TV history who emblematizes the rise from rags to riches.

Celetoids are celebrities who are famous because of (mostly sexual) scandals, reality TV shows, etc for a short time. To maintain being talked of, new scandals have to be caused. The last classification, Celeactors, are fictional characters that gain media and public attention and become culture reference figures, i.e. James Bond, Superman and Lara Croft (Rojek, 2001, p. 22-25).

In addition, a breakdown into an A-B-C class system with regard to the popularity and success of a celebrity can also be recognized (A-Celebs are stars, C-Celebs are starlets).

A distinction between the terms celebrity and superstar is hardly to find in the press’/literature’s consensus. One special aspect separates them from each other: talent. While celebrity can occur without skills (ascribed and attributed celebrity), superstars are famous because of their brilliant achievements (Nüesch, 2007, p. 83-84). Every superstar is a celebrity, but not every celebrity is a superstar!


Celebrities find themselves in a new economy of employment opportunities. They can work for concerns to pursue their origin profession as actresses, models, singers, designers etc., as also in form of celebrity endorsers for trading companies such as L’Oreal, Coca Cola or Mercedes-Benz.


2.2 Celebrity endorsement

2.2.1 Definition

What do Britney Spears, Halle Berry and Mike Tyson have in common? Not only their fame, but their advertising contracts with Pepsi. Companies engage celebrities to strengthen their products popularity, to appreciate the company’s outward image and finally to increase the revenue as well as the market share.


2.2.2 Forms of celebrity endorsement


Celebrity endorsement is not just about smiling into a camera and presenting the product: four different forms of celebrity endorsement can be signified (Khatri, 2006, p. 27):


1. Testimonial

“If the celebrity has personally used a product or service and is in a position to

attest its quality, then he or she may give a testimonial citing its benefits.”


2. Endorsement

“celebrities often lend their names to ads for product or services for which they

may or may not be the experts.”


3. Actor

“A Celebrity may be asked to present a product or service as a part of character

enactment rather than personal testimonial or endorsement.”


4. Spokesperson

“A celebrity who represents a brand or company over an extended periods of time

often in print and TV ads as well as in personal appearances is usually called a

company’s spokesperson.”


2.2.3 Models and theoretical concepts


“Celebrity endorsement is a heavily employed medium of advertising that, in

many respects, is more effective than celebrity-less endorsement” (Hunter, 2009, p. 25) – the why and wherefore is explained in the following. Several models analyze the effect of endorsers on the consumer’s shopping behavior. Three main models/concepts, in particular the source credibility/attractiveness, the Match-Up Hypothesis as well as the Model of Meaning Transfer, are illuminated hereafter.


2.2.3.1 Source credibility and attractiveness

The effectiveness of a source respectively the product presenter is based on two approaches, namely the source credibility and the source attractiveness (McCracken, 2005, p.98). Source credibility centers the aspect of the product-specific knowledge (expertise), objectivity and trustworthiness, the source has to emit to the consumer.

Thereby, the profession of the source has to fit with the product attributes or intended purpose to strengthen authenticity. Source credibility is significant in cases, when the product is cost-intensive, requires a high-involvement of the costumer (meaning high information demand is assumed to lower the risk of mispurchasing) and is mainly of a technical or complex nature.

To take an example, an endorser with a high credibility rate seems to be Michael Schumacher, promoting the new Mercedes SLS AMG. The model of source attractiveness relates to the source’s physical appearance and attractiveness, similarity to the costumer as well as the perceived radiation of sympathy. In this particular case is the endorser’s expert know-how hardly necessary, whereas the personality, social status and likeability are the most important factors.

Source attractiveness is in demand, when the product purchase is a part of a social status forming process. A possible mispurchase will be avenged with a loss in social recognition or discomfort caused by the response of the society to this purchase. Additionally, the customer buys the presented product in hopes of getting the same attention the endorser’s catches.

This is true for convenience goods, for instance makeup, perfume, food, clothing and jewelry plus goods that assume a low involvement of the costumer attended with a low financial (but high social) risk in case of mispurchasing (Solomon et al., 2001, p.187-19). An appropriate example for the model of source attractiveness is Penélope Cruz. She endorses several product lines of the French cosmetics and beauty company L’Oreal and is the new testimonial of the Spanish clothing company Mango.

Both models can overlap, when a good looking or likeable celebrity impersonates also a trustworthy, expert appearance. Mannequins are for instance confidable regarding products that are typical for their profession: clothes and beauty products. They are experts when the question arouses which product is of high quality and will lead to visible effects, whereby their appearance is an indication for their expertise.

But critical costumers doubt thereby the credibility, or would you believe that Penélope Cruz uses a $ 3-hairspray?


2.2.3.2 Match-Up Hypothesis

The Match-Up Hypothesis issues the compatibility between the celebrity and the product; the higher the fit between both parts, the higher advertising effectiveness will be achieved. Current studies emphasize that the look of endorsers and the brands must coincide to avoid cognitive dissonance. That is the case when an attractive actress promotes beauty enhancing products.

Certainly, the attractiveness of an endorser is immaterial if the product doesn’t acquire a good looking spokesperson, for example a computer (Kamins, 1990).

2.2.3.3 Model of Meaning Transfer

McCracken (1989, p. 313-315) developed a three-step based Meaning Transfer Model to measure the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement which depends on the meaning the recipient ascribes the endorser and thereby also the product. In the first step, the recipient develops an image of the endorser dependent on cultural norms and imprints.

The next step contains the meaning transfer from the endorser’s attributes to the brand attributes and in the last step, the recipient internalizes the product’s attributes and integrates them into his self-perception. This model makes clear how brand perception works and why the choice of the right celebrity endorser is so important.

celebrity

Roles/norms

consumer

product

celebrity

product


Figure 1: Meaning Transfer Model, adopted from McCracken (1989)

Commonly, one celebrity doesn’t represent only one brand, except the endorsement deal is an exclusive contract which prohibits the engagement in other campaigns. That is rarely the case because such contracts involve a great deal of expense for the company. Heidi Klum is the epitome of that idea: she promotes Katjes, McDonald’s, Volkswagen, Douglas and so on.

Another phenomenon is that one brand is endorsed by different celebrities. For instance, Pepsi is a brand that is presented by several spokespeople during a time period.

The question is, whether both forms effect the consumer brand attitudes positively. On the one hand, the source credibility gets scrutinized as the consumer thinks that the source is paid for his engagement and indecisive in terms of the product choice and presentation. The credibility and also the likeability sink when more than four different brands are endorsed by one spokesperson.

On the other hand, it is hypothesized that a positive effect can occur, i.e. forming of a positive brand image when more than four products are endorsed (Khatri, 2006, p. 33).


While analyzing celebrity endorsement and its effects, it becomes clear that there are quite a few positive as well as negative aspects that have to be considered. The most important are described in the following, starting with the advantages (Katyal, 2010):

+ “Establishing of Credibility”

The costumer thinks that this product is trustworthy because prominent personages

use and recommend it.

+ “Ensured Attention”

Celebrities awake more attention than traditional advertising tools.

+ “PR coverage”

Celebrities are used to represent the product not only in commercials but on PR

events and intensify the PR activities.

+ “Higher degree of recall”

The costumer remembers the brand more easily and often by equating the brand

with the endorser. When the celebrity appears in movies or reality TV formats, the

costumer remembers thereby the endorsed brand.

+ “Associative Benefit”

The costumer concludes that if the celebrity benefits from using the product, he or

she will also benefit from it.

+ “Mitigating a tarnished image”

which suffered from bad publicity and product defects in the past. Point 5

(associative benefit) and Point 1 (establishing of credibility) are indirectly

regarded.

+ “Psychographic Connect”

The positive connotations related to the celebrities shall project onto the product.

+ “Demographic Connect”

Celebrities with different demographic background can be utilized for various

target groups that differ from each other in demographic aspects (age, gender,

etc).

+ “Mass Appeal”

Because of their universal appeal, some celebrities can endorse nearly every

product to awake interest.

+ “Rejuvenating a stagnant brand”

To revive a brand, celebrities can arouse new attention.

+ “Compensation of innovative ideas”

Although a lot of advantages can be signified, it is necessary to prevent a disregard of the disadvantages that come along with celebrity endorsement.

- The reputation of the celebrity may derogate after he/she has endorsed the

product”

Scandals and amoral behavior of the endorser may cause a change of the

customer’s behavior towards the product. The customer is deterred from using

On the other hand, the celebrity’s image can suffer from product defects that will

tie them on the negative connotations, the brand is evoking.

- “The vampire effect”

The vampire effect appears when the endorser overshadows the brand. This is

possible, if there is no direct connection or consensus between the celebrity and

the endorsed brand. Then, the costumer will only remember the celebrity and not

the brand.

- “Inconsistency in the professional popularity of the celebrity”

The demand for the product can decrease as the success of celebrities vanishes.

- “Multi brand endorsements by the same celebrity would lead to overexposure”

If the celebrity endorses to many products, the costumer questions his/her

credibility and blocks the advertising efforts.

- “Celebrities endorsing one brand and using another (competitor)”

A clear case of double standards: the celebrity promotes one product but

buys a competitive product. The costumer is confused and doubts the product’s

quality and the endorser’s credibility.

The mismatch between the celebrity and the brand is based on the Match-Up

Hypothesis: if the endorser does not fit with the attributes of the product, then a

positive advertising effect won’t occur.


2.3 Celebrity Entrepreneurship


Celebrity Entrepreneurship cannot be equated easily with Celebrity Endorsement though the existence of overlaps cannot be denied.

Celebrity entrepreneurship is defined as “an individual who is known for her/his well known-ness [sic] and takes part both in owning and running a venture (or are portrayed as doing so). (…) Celebrity entrepreneurship is the phenomenon of celebrities engaging in such entrepreneurial activities.

Implicit in this definition is that by associating themselves through ownership and running the venture, these celebrity entrepreneurs are also endorsers.” (Hunter, 2009, p. 25), instancing Sean John Combs aka P.Diddy together with Justin Timberlake who both run their own clothing companies (Sean John Clothing Inc and William Rast). To sum it up, it has to be said that celebrity entrepreneurship is a special type of enterprise whereby a well-known person holds a company and manages it.


CHAPTER 3 The celebrity as a trademark – possibilities

and limitations


“There is now a vast range of media sites through which modern celebrity can emerge. Mass, digital and narrowcast media outlets, often in a synergetic relationship, enable the famous to be pictured, photographed, broadcast, pod cast and filmed in a real-time, offering a 24/7 relay across the globe. Celebrities are now rarely restricted to a single medium, and the commercial and cultural value of the modern star or celebrity is seen to be predicted on their inter-and cross-textual appeal.

This process has fuelled a debate about the flattening of distinctions between stars, celebrities and personalities.” (Redmond & Holmes, 2007, p.6). Due to the melding of a celebrity’ personality and its advertising image, it is difficult to


3.1 Historical context


The first incidents of celebrity usage in advertising can be found in the late 19th century. Back then it was a common practice to advertise with endorsers like monarchs and knights. With the beginning of the golden ‛20s, companies uses more and more entertainment stars instead of sovereigns to endorse their products (Olsson, 2008, p. 8-9).

The studios had the power over the celebrities by decreeing them what to tell in an interview and designing their public image. An important item is, that the salary was fix, whether the actors’/actresses’ market value had increased or not. With the break-through of a new technology, namely the television in the ‛50s/’60s, the studios lost their monopoly power: actors/actresses got the opportunity to contract with broadcasters and negotiated their salary from year to year.

The studios had to change their strategy and flexibilized their contract conditions. Nowadays, celebrities have their own agents to negotiate their salary and other contract conditions. The power transferred over the course of time from the studios to the celebrities, who own the market power, yet (Epstein, 2006, p. 8-23). With the nowadays independence from the studios, celebrities can choose in which film they participate in and which image they want to impersonate.

Media businesses are a carbon copy of each other, the same pattern can be recognized in the music business.


References & Links

Swap your papers