The theory of evolution suggests that the human mind and behaviour have changed over millions of years and have adapted to suit the demands of our individual environments.
Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness (EEA) - species adapts to their environment due to selective pressures of the time. Not all behaviours are adaptive - just those that ensure survival.
Explains why humans have such large brain in comparison to body size
Developed in response to complex social organisation
Localisation Of Brain Functions
Different areas of the brain are responsible for different functions
Cerebral cortex → higher order cognitive functions (divided into 4 lobes)
Frontal → creativity, personality and thinking
Occipital → Vision
Parietal → sensory information (temp., touch, pain)
Temporal → memory and auditory processing
Paul Broca - studied eight patients w/ language problems. All had specific damage to area in left hemisphere, known as Broca’s area and is now associated w/ language production.
If damaged - ability to speak will be lost
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter = chemical substance
Released between neurons in brain
Neurons = electrically excitable cells forming base of nervous system
Neurotransmitters released over synapses as chemical messenger
According to biological approach these control physiological and psychological behaviour
Serotonin - can affect mood, sleep and appetite.
At optimum level = makes us happy
Too high level = anxious / stressed
Too low level = depressed
Dopamine - associated w/ schizophrenia
Drugs that block dopamine reduce schizophrenic symptoms
Relationship Formation
Apply principles of evolution to understanding human behaviour + formation of romantic relationships
Males + females seek seek healthy offspring and genes to survive
Sexual partners are those who can produce and provide for healthy children
Females produce few eggs, 9 months of pregnancy, childbirth etc. Male contribution is minor in comparison.
Males can produce seemingly unlimited no. of offspring
Biological differences lead to males and females developing different selection strategies for a partner
Females → look for plentiful partners
Males → maximise chances of producing offspring by mating frequently and ‘sowing seed’ w/ as many people as possible
Buss (1989)
Males valued physical attractiveness more
Females values earning potential and occupational status more
Males believe attractiveness could be indicator of fertility but earning potential indicates ability to provide for offspring
Therapy
Drug Therapy
Aim - alter neurochemical or hormonal functioning in order to alleviate the symptoms of the illness
Drug therapy - works by imitating actions or blocking flow of neurotransmitters
Schizophrenia
Positive symptoms
Disorganised thinking
Hallucinations
Delusions
Negative symptoms
Lack of energy
Reduction in ability to express emotions
Decrease in ability to seek enjoyment
Impaired social relationships
Complex psychotic disorder involving disturbance of thought, emotion, behaviour
Medical model - suggests people should be treated for their mental illness through direct manipulation of bodily processes
Neurotransmitters - affect mood, feeling, perceptions and behaviour
Psychotherapeutic drugs can be used to alter action & activity of chemicals to treat mental disorders
Localisation of brain function - drugs target certain parts of the brain which are involved in psychological disorders
Limbic system - regulates emotions, disturbances affect mood
Evaluation
Effectiveness
Royal College of Psychiatrists → 65% patients experienced reduction in depressive symptoms after 3 months course of SSRIs compared to 30% who received placebo
Although SSRIs have potential side effects, they are normally mild and temporary
Soomro et al → 17 studies of SSRIs w/ OCD and found them more effective than placebos up to 3 months after treatment
Kahn et al → 250 patients over 8 weeks - BZs significantly superior to placebos
Side effects
Soomro et al → nausea, headaches and insomnia are common side effects on insomnia
Not enough for the patient to not take/use the drug
Symptoms not cause
May be effective but does not address the underlying cause
Person suffering depression due to childhood trauma, antidepressants would provide short term solution but cause/root of problem is not dealt with
Revolving door syndrome - patient is back and forth to doctor as disorder is never truly cured
Comparison to other treatments
Drug therapy is cheap for patient ( → cheap for NHS)
Practitioner invests less time in patient
consultation every few months to discuss effects of drug treatment
Efficient and easy to administer compared to other therapies
Ethical Issues
Valid consent - difficult to remember all facts relating to potential side effects of drug
Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse
Methodology
Quasi experiment
Matched pairs design
IV - NGRI
DV - Brain differences
Participants
Experimental Group
41
39 men 2 women
Average age = 34.4 years
All tried in state of California
Referred to University of California for examination to obtain proof of diminished capacity
*Pp’s told to be medication free for 2 weeks before brain scanning
Control Group
Each matched with murderer based on sex and age
Tested using identical PET scan procedures
6 schizophrenics matched with 6 schizophrenics from mental health hospital
None taking medication
Procedures
Sample → opportunity sampling
PET scan used to study active areas of brain
All pp’s given tracer
Flurodeoxyglucose (FDG)
Tracer attaches to active areas of brain and allows comparability of experimental and control group
All pp’s completed continuous performance task (CPT)
Task focused on activating areas of brain so they could see how they functioned
Given chance to practice CPT
Started CPT → 30 seconds → inject FDG
So initial task novelty wouldn’t be FDG labelled
32 minutes after injection PET scan is taken
10 horizontal slices of brain using cortical peel and box techniques
Precise details given so study could be replicated
Findings
Brain Differences
Reduced glucose metabolism - in some areas previously associated with violence
Abnormal Asymmetries - reduced activity in left side, but increased on right side of brain
Some of the areas linked to violence (amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus)
No differences - in many brain structures
Notably associated with mental illness but not violence
CPT performance - both groups performed similarly
Any observations not related to task
Handedness - 6 NGRIs left handed and less amygdala asymmetry and higher medial prefrontal activity than right handed NGRIs
Conclusions
Results do not show violence is determined by biology alone.
Social, psychological, cultural and situational factors also play important role
Results do not show NGRI not responsible for actions
Nor that PET scans can be used as diagnostic technique
Do not establish causal link between brain dysfunction & violence
Results do show link between brain dysfunction and predisposition toward violence
Evaluation
Quasi-experiment
Findings not justified as they don’t show that violent behaviour is determined by biology alone
Although Raine et al do suggest other factors that play a major role also
No causal conclusions can be drawn
Readers misinterpret findings and assume criminal behaviour is predetermined and inescapable
PET scan
Can see the brain ‘in action’
Can see how different individuals differed in the way they processed information
The sample
Not typical of all violent individuals
Findings do not show all violent offenders have same brain dysfunctions → only draw conclusions
Not all violent crimes involve murder → conclusions = restricted to certain group of people
Valid consent
Pp’s may not be mentally competent to provide valid consent
Not funny understood what was required of them (deemed as e.g. of psychological harm)
Not fully understood right to withdraw (esp. Because they’re prisoners)
Socially sensitive research
Is understanding of criminal behaviour advanced by research?
People w/ similar brain abnormalities might be imprisoned without trial / reference to social circumstances
Alternative Evidence
Yang and Raine - 43 imaging studies w/ antisocial and violent behaviour
Significantly reduced prefrontal activity
Tiihonen et al - MAOA gene - causes abnormally high levels of dopamine
895 Finnish prisoners → association made between gene and increased likelihood of committing violent crime
James Fallon - had genetic and brain characteristics of violent criminal → but wasn’t one
Positive childhood experiences
Diathesis-stress → didn’t have environmental stressor to become a criminal
Positive Approach (AS Revision)
Acknowledgement of Free Will
Humans = self-directing and adaptive, good life can be experienced if we use strengths and virtues to enhance our life
Diener and Seligman → students with closest ties to family and friends and chose to spend more time with them, reported higher level of happiness and lower level of depression
Authenticity of Goodness and Excellence
Happiness and goodness are as natural feelings as anxiety and stress [need to assign positive states of mind equal attention]
Positive approach focuses on celebrating the good life, improve wellbeing and fulfillment
Rather than focusing on what is wrong [mental illness]
Seligman - signature strengths → Refers to character strengths that are most essential to individual
Love of learning, bravery, humour, creativity and persistence
Focus On ‘The Good Life’
Seligman - way to happiness and experience best life possible is to develop strengths and virtues.
By bettering and strengthening natural qualities, can live a ‘good life’
1. Pleasant life - happiness from positive emotions in relation to past, present and future
2. Good life - happiness from positive activities that positively absorb and engage us
3. Meaningful life - happiness from deeper sense of fulfillment by living for greater purpose than oneself
Seligman → good life is combination of 3 elements
Positive connection to others, positive individual traits, life regulation qualities
+ve individual traits - personal qualities such as sense of integrity, morality creativity etc.
Life regulation qualities - qualities needed to be controlled and monitored to achieve goals, e.g. faith in decision making and wisdom (to guide behaviour)
Relationship formation
Feelings of love, kindness, generosity and forgiveness = authentic → why relationships are formed
Relationship allows individuals to express and develop ‘signature strengths’
Individuals strive for more contented life where they are able to nurture qualities
Socially programmed to work hard to find + build relationships → if +ve can contribute substantially to happiness
Individuals strive for ‘good life’ (incl. Good relationships + work)
Everything needed for ‘’ = essential in healthy relationship and maintenance
Social and romantic relationships are activities that absorb and engage us
Besotted and totally absorbed when enter into romantic relationship
Absorption and engagement may lead to experiencing ‘good life’
Pew Research Centre (2005) - 43% married respondents v. happy in comparison to 24% unmarried respondents
Therapy - Mindfulness
Roots in ancient Buddhist practice - way to teach people to control own mind by paying attention to present thoughts
Gaining control of thoughts
Too focused on past/future to be fully present
Teaches person to focus on present → aware of incoming thoughts/feelings + accept them
Negative automatic thinking can lead to anxiety and depression
Mindfulness helps individual notice automatic processes and alter their reaction
Meditation and mindful breathing
Key methods to present = meditation and breathing.
Meditation → best way to focus on here and now
Through body posture and breathing exercises the learns to ‘tune out’ distractions
Focus on sensations of body
Thoughts and emotions acknowledged but not dwelled upon
Client learns thoughts are impermanent and transitory
Informal practices of mindfulness
Once learned, mindfulness can be practiced throughout daily life
Informal mindfulness practice is opposite to multi-tasking [conscious decision to focus on single task]
Give a break from normal thought processes
Assumptions and Therapy
Authenticity of goodness and excellence - mindfulness nurtures +ve emotions, strengths and virtues and emphasises on importance of authenticity and goodness
Other therapies focus on curing mental illness, but mindfulness aims to prevent it
Mindfulness is based on fact humans have free will. Can gain control of their thoughts and emotions. Enhances self-regulation and encourages people to gain control of thoughts + emotions in order to develop more productive attitude
Control amount of time spent on negative thoughts
Mindfulness based cognitive therapy (MBCT)
Crane et al - people who experienced more than 3 episodes of depression, MBCT reduces recurrence rate over 12 months by 40-50%
DE
