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Glossary
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Author Klaus D. in Nov. 2018 |
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Glossary English Language | |
University, School | | Tula State University | |
Grade, Teacher, Year | | 2018, Cook | |
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Seminar 1. BASIC CONCEPTS Grammar [ˈɡræm.ɚ]–the rules about how words change their form and combine with other words to make sentences. Grammatical [ɡrəˈmæt.ɪ.kəl]–relating to grammar or obeying the rules of grammar: a grammatical (= grammatically correct) sentence. Morphology [mɔːˈfɒl.ə.dʒi]–grammatical classes and groups of words, their grammatical categories and systems of forms (paradigms) in which these categories actually exist. Morphological [ˌmɔː.fəˈlɒdʒ.ɪ.kəl]–relating to the study of the form of words and phrases. Syntax [ˈsɪn.tæks]–the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, usually including word order. Syntactic [sɪnˈtæk.tɪk]–relating to the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence. Semantics [sɪˈmæn.tɪks]–the study of meanings in a language: Syntax describes the rules by which words can be combined into sentences, while semantics describes what they mean. Semantic [sɪˈmæn.tɪks]–connected with the meanings of words. Grammatical category [grəˈmætɪkəl] [ˈkætɪgəri]–a unit of grammar based on a morphological opposition of grammatical meaning presented in grammatical forms. Grammatical meaning [grəˈmætɪkəl] [ˈmiːnɪŋ]– the meaning conveyed in a sentence by word order and other grammatical signals. Categorial meaning [ˌkætɪˈgɒrɪəl] [ˈmiːnɪŋ]– process presented as being developed in time and being embedded in the semantics of all verbs. Form [fɔːm]–the sum total of all formal means constantly employed to render this or that grammatical meaning. Grammatical forms divided into synthetic, analytical and suppletive forms. Grammatical function [grəˈmætɪkəl] [ˈfʌnŋkʃən] – the syntactic role played by a word or phrase in the context of a particular clause, or sentence. Sometimes called simply function. Opposition [ˌɒpəˈzɪʃən]–a generalized correlation of language units, forms, by means of which a certain category or function is expressed. Binary [ˈbaɪnəri] –taking into consideration the number of members of the oppositions we can speak of binary and more-than-binary oppositions. Privative [ˈprɪvətɪv] –formed by a contrastive pair whenone member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature, while the other member is characterized by the absence of this very feature. Gradual [ˈgrædjʊəl] –formed by a contrastive group of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of some feature but by the degree of the same feature. Equipollent [ˌiːkwɪˈpɒlənt]–formed by a contrastive pair or group of members which are differentiated by different positive features. Marked [mɑːkt]–the member in which the differential feature (strong, positive). Unmarked [ʌnˈmɑːkt]–the other member of the opposition (weak, negative). Neutralization [ˌnjuːtrəlaɪˈzeɪʃən]– it is the type of oppositional reduction in which the weak member of opposition is used in the position of the marked member.
Transposition [ˌtrænspəˈzɪʃən]– it is the type of oppositional reduction in which we use the marked member and transgress expressive conventions of ordinary speech. Oppositional reduction [ˌɒpəˈzɪʃən(ə)l] [rɪˈdʌkʃən]– in various contextual positions one member of an opposition can be used in the position of the other. Distribution [ˌdɪstrɪˈbjuːʃən]– the position of an element and its combinability with other elements in this or that particular context. Contrastive [kənˈtrɑːstɪv]– the same position, different meanings. Non-contrastive [nɒn]-[kənˈtrɑːstɪv]– the same position, no difference in meaning; variants of the same element. Complementary [ˌkɒmplɪˈmɛntəri]– mutual exclusiveness of pairs of forms in a certain environment; the same meaning, different positions; variants of the same element. Word-formation [wɜːd]-[fɔːˈmeɪʃən] – the creation of new words. Derivation [ˌdɛrɪˈveɪʃən]– the process of forming a new word from an existing word, often by adding a prefix or suffix, such as -ness or un-. Analytic [ˌænəˈlɪtɪk]– in such forms there two or more words in which at least one element is an auxiliary. Synthetic [sɪnˈθɛtɪk]– such forms that unite both lexical and grammatical meanings in one word. Suppletive [səˈpliːtɪv]– building a form of a word from an altogether different stem. Sound alternation [saʊnd] [ˌɔːltəˈneɪʃ(ə)n]– a way of expressing grammatical categories which consists in changing a sound inside the root. Auxiliary [ɔːgˈzɪljəri]– a constant element of an analytical structure, which is devoid of lexical meaning (it renders grammatical meanings and is a purely grammatical element). Descriptivism [dɪsˈkrɪptɪvɪz(ə)m]– the belief that books about language should describe how language is really used, rather than giving rules to follow saying what is correct and not correct. Morpheme [ˈmɔːfiːm]– the smallest grammatical unit in a language. Root [ruːt]– its most basic form, to which other parts, such as affixes, can be added. Affix [ˈæfɪks]– a letter or group of letters added to the beginning or end of a word to make a new word Prefix [ˈpriːfɪks]– the affix which is added to the beginning of a stem. Suffix [ˈsʌfɪks]– the affix which is added to the end of a stem. Inflection [ɪnˈflɛkʃən]– the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, and mood. Distributional analysis [ˌdɪstrɪˈbjuːʃənəl] [əˈnæləsɪs]– we study units of language in the relation to their contextual environment.
Seminar 2. GRAMMATICAL CLASSES OF WORDS Prescriptivism [prɪsˈkrɪptɪvɪz(ə)m] – the attempt to lay down rules defining preferred or "correct" use of language. Structuralism [ˈstrʌkʧərəlɪz(ə)m] – linguistics committed to the structuralist principle that a language is a self-contained relational structure, the elements of which derive their existence and their value from their distribution and oppositions in texts or discourse.
Notional words [ˈnəʊʃənl] [wɜːdz] – denote things, actions and other extra-linguistic phenomena. Functional words [ˈfʌŋkʃənl] [wɜːdz] – denote relations and connections between the notional words. Semi-notional words [ˈsɛmi]-[ˈnəʊʃənl] [wɜːdz] – some notional words develop the meanings peculiar to function words. Declinable [dɪˈklaɪnəbl] – a group of parts of speech which made by H. Sweet that includes nouns, adjectives and verbs. Indeclinable [ˌɪndɪˈklaɪnəbl] – a group of parts of speech which made by H. Sweet that includes adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Substitution [ˌsʌbstɪˈtjuːʃən] – the replacement of a word or phrase with a "filler" word (such as one, so, or do) to avoid repetition. Combinability [kəmˌbaɪnəˈbɪlɪti] – the position of a word in the sentence is the syntactic function of word. Variability [ˌveərɪəˈbɪlɪti] – refers to regional, social or contextual differences in the ways that a particular language is used. Variable [ˈveərɪəbl] – relating to variability. Invariable [ɪnˈveərɪəbl] – explaining similarities and differences betwee how an idea is understand in ordinary usage and how it is understood when used as a conceptual metaphor. Noun [naʊn] – a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas. Article [ˈɑːtɪkl] – a grammatical element used to indicate definiteness or indefiniteness. Numeral [ˈnjuːmərəl] – a member of a part of speech characterized by the designation of numbers. Pronoun [ˈprəʊnaʊn] – a word that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase. Universal[ˌjuːnɪˈvɜːsəl] – Verb [vɜːb] – part of speech that in syntax conveys an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand). Adverb [ˈædvɜːb] – a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition, or sentence.
Seminar 3. THE NOUN Proper noun [ˈprɒpə] [naʊn]– a noun that in its primary application refers to a unique entity, such as London, Jupiter, Sarah, or Microsoft. Common noun [ˈkɒmən] [naʊn]– a noun that is the name of a group of similar things, such as "table" or "book", and not of a single person, place, or thing.
Inanimate [ɪnˈænɪmɪt]– a semantic category of noun, which refers to a thing or concept (corn, boyhood, sleep).Inanimate nouns correlate with it, which. Human [ˈhjuːmən]– Non-human [nɒn]-[ˈhjuːmən]– Collective [kɒˈlɛktɪv]– a count noun that denotes a group of individuals (e.g. assembly, family, crew). Derived [dɪˈraɪvd]– nouns consisting of a stem and one or more morphemes (stem + affix, affix + stem – thingness). Compound [ˈkɒmpaʊnd]– a noun made up of two or more existing words, e.g. cat food or playgroup(stem+ stem – armchair). Determiner [dɪˈtɜːmɪnə]– a word that occurs together with a noun or noun phrase and serves to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. Singular [ˈsɪŋgjʊlə]– names one person, place, thing, or idea. Plural [ˈplʊərəl]– names more than one person, place, thing, or idea. Singularia tantum [ˈsɪŋɡjələrei] [ˈtɑntəm]– a noun (in any specific sense) that has no plural form and is only used with singular verbs. Pluralia tantum [plʊˌɹɑleɪ̯] [ˈtɑntəm]– a noun (in any specific sense) that has no singular form, such as scissors (in most usage). Discreteness [dɪsˈkriːtnəs]– numeric structure of the noun; the category of number denotes marked and unmarked discreteness (not quantity) Discrete [dɪsˈkriːt]– the category of number is realized only within subclass of countable nouns, i.e. nouns having numeric (discrete) structure. Gender [ˈʤɛndə]– classes of nouns reflected in the behaviour of associated words. Common gender divisions include masculine and feminine; masculine, feminine and neuter; or animate and inanimate. Feminine [ˈfɛmɪnɪn]– a noun, pronoun, adjective, or inflectional form or class of the feminine gender. Masculine [ˈmɑːskjʊlɪn]– a noun, pronoun, adjective, or inflectional form or class of the masculine gender. Neuter [ˈnjuːtə]– a noun, pronoun, adjective, or inflectional form or class of the neuter gender. Case [keɪs]– the grammatical way that writers show how nouns or pronouns relate to other words in a sentence. Genitive [ˈʤɛnɪtɪv]– the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun. Subjective genitive [səbˈʤɛktɪv] [ˈʤɛnɪtɪv]– the case in which the person in the genitive case creates something. Possessive genitive [pəˈzɛsɪv] [ˈʤɛnɪtɪv]– the genitive case is when we add apostrophe S ('s) to show possession, that something belongs to another or a type of relationship between things. Descriptive genitive [dɪsˈkrɪptɪv] [ˈʤɛnɪtɪv]– the noun in the genitive case here completely loses its meaning of possession, comes to denote a quality, and refers to a whole class of similar objects: a girls’ school (= a school for girls). Genitive of origin [ˈʤɛnɪtɪv] [ɒv] [ˈɒrɪʤɪn]– the case in which the person in the genitive case doing something (the boy’s story – the boy told the story). Partitive genitive [ˈpɑːtɪtɪv] [ˈʤɛnɪtɪv]– see the definition «Genetive of measure». Appositive genitive [əˈpɒzɪtɪv] [ˈʤɛnɪtɪv]– a prepositional phrase with of as in: the month of December, the sin of pride, or the city of New York. This has also been invoked as an explanation for the double genitive: a friend of mine. Double genitive [ˈdʌbl] [ˈʤɛnɪtɪv]– it is used when a noun is modified by two successive nouns one of which is in the genitive case and the other with the “of”- phrase: a friend of my father’s. Seminar 7. THE ADJECTIVE Substantivized [ˈsʌbstəntɪvaɪzd]– adjectives which have the functions of nouns in the sentence and are always preceded by the definite article.
Qualitative [ˈkwɒlɪtətɪv] – describe the qualities of a person or thing – whether they are large or small, happy or sad, etc. Relative [ˈrɛlətɪv]– a pronominal adjective that introduces a clause qualifying an antecedent (as which in “our next meeting will be on Monday, at which time a new chairman will be elected”) or a clause functioning as a substantive (as which in “I do not know which course I should follow”). Evaluative function [ɪˈvæljʊətɪv] [ˈfʌnŋkʃən]– when an adjective acquires an evaluative force and, consequently, can presuppose a greater or lesser degree ("amount") of the denoted properly in the corresponding referent. Specificative function – when an adjective becomes a specificative, not an evaluative unit in the grammatical sense. Stative – a property that cannot be conceived as a developing process and the dynamic property of an entity is a property that is conceived as active, or as a developing process. Degrees of comparison [dɪˈgriːz] [ɒv] [kəmˈpærɪsn]– adjective change in form when they show comparison. Positive [ˈpɒzətɪv]– an adjective is said to be in the positive degree when there is no comparison. Comparative [kəmˈpærətɪv]–an adjective is said to be in the comparitive degree when it is used to compare two nouns/pronouns. Superlative [sju(ː)ˈpɜːlətɪv]– an adjective is in superlative degree when it is used to compare more than two nouns/pronouns. We use the article 'the' before the superlative degrees.
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