internal
structure
is the meaning of the word or semantic structure.The area of
lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word is
called semantics.
Another
structural aspect of the word is its unity. The word is characterized
by formal and semantic unity.
The
formal
unity
of the word may be explained by its difference from the word group
with the same elements. A word belongs to one part of speech,
fulfills one syntactic function element of the word group has its own
morphological and syntactic characteristics. Formal unity means that
you can divide a word into separate parts. A word is changed
according to its paradigm as a single whole. A blackbird (is
characterized by unity, possesses a single grammatical framing:
blackbird/s. The first constituent black is not subject to any
grammatical changes)and a black bird (each constituent can aquire
grammatical forms of its own: the blackest birds I’ve ever seen).
The
semantic
unity means that word stands for one concept (поняття), a word
group stands for as many concepts as many elements there are in its
structure. In the word-group a black bird each of the meaning words
conveys a separate concept: bird-a kind of leaving creature, black-a
colour. The word blackbird conveys only one concept- the type of
bird.
A
word is the largest unit of a morphological level and the smallest
unit of the syntactic level.
3. Syntagmatic
and paradigmatic levels of studying a word. Studying words
synchronically and diachronically.
Word
is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication,
representing a group of sounds, having a meaning, subject to
grammatical changes and characterized by formal and semantic unity.
A
word can be studied on the syntegmatic and paradigmatic levels.
On
the syntagmatic
level
the
semantic structure of the word is studied in its relationships with
the neighboring units words in connected speech. In other words, the
semantic characteristics of the word are observed, described and
studied on the basis of its typical contexts.
On
the paradigmatic
level
a word is studied in its relationships with the other words in the
sentence (vocabulary system). When used in actual speech the word
undergoes certain modifications in one of its forms. The system
showing a word in all its word-forms is called a paradigm. The
lexical meaning of the word is the same throughout the paradigm. The
grammatical meaning varies from one form to another. The word
paradigm is usually used in 2 meanings: 1) as a system of forms of
one word which shows the differences and relationships between them
(to see–saw– seen-seeing) 2) as a pattern according to which
every part of speech may change its forms.
By
syntagmatic is meant the relationship that a linguistic element has
with other elements, while by paradigmatic is meant the relationship
it has with elements with which it may be replaced or substituted.
The cat is on the mat (cat-mat – syntagmatical relation). The dog
is on the mat (paradigmatic relation cat-dog)
Another
important objective of lexicological studies is the study of the
vocabulary of a language as a system. Synchronically.
To study vocabulary synchronically means at a given stage of its
development. Diachronically.
Means to study vocabulary in its historical development (through the
period of origin to the present period). They are interconnected and
interrelated because every linguistic structure and system exists in
a state of constant development so that the synchronic state of a
language system is a result of a long process of linguistic
evaluation, of its historical development.
General
Lexicology
is a part of General Linguistics – study of vocabulary of any
particular language. Spesial
Lexicology
– particular language. The links of lexicology with other branches
– morphology, grammar (the study of the grammatical structure of
language; it is concerned with the various means of expressing
grammatical relations between words as well as with patterns after
which words are combined into word-groups and sentences), phonetics
(investigates the phonetic structure of language and is concerned
with the study of the outer sound-form of the word), general
linguistics, history of the language, stylistics (concerned with a
sudy of nature, functions and styles of languages).
4. Etymology
as a branch of linguistics. The differentiation of the present-day
English vocabulary. Native words.
Etymology
comes from Greek – (“etymon” (істина, truth) + logos
–word, study) is a branch of linguistics which studies the origin
of words.
English
is a member of the western group of the Germanic branch of the
Indo-European language family. English vocabulary as the one of any
other language is the result of its long historic development.The
English vocabulary consists of native words and borrowings.
Native
words belong to the original English word-stock and are known from
the old English manuscripts. They are divided into those of
Indo-European stock and those of common Germanic origin.
Indo-European
words contain words of roots common to all or most languages of the
Indo-European group. These words denote elementary concepts without
which no human communication would be possible. The following groups
can be identified: 1) family relations (mother, father, brother, son,
daughter); 2) parts of human body ( foot, nose, lip, heart); 3)
Animals (cow, swine, goose); 4) Plants (tree, birch, corn); 5) time
of day (day, night); 6) heavenly bodies (sun, moon, star) 7)
adjectives (red, new, sad); 8) the numerals from 1 to100; 9) Personal
and demonstrative pronouns; 10) verbs (be, stand, sit, eat, know).
The
English proper words (власне англ.) cannot be found in any
other language only in the English one (bird, boy, girl, lady, lord,
woman, daisy, always).
The
Germanic element of the vocabulary became the bulk of the Old English
vocabulary. These are words of roots common to all or most Germanic
languages. Some of them are the same as in the Indo-European element:
1) parts
of the human body
(head, hand, arm, finger, bone); 2) animals
(bear, fox, calf);3) plants
(oak, fir, grass);4) natural
phenomena
(rain, frost); 5) seasons
of the year
(winter, spring, summer); 6) landscape
features
(sea, land); 7) human
dwellings and furniture
(house, room, bench); 8) sea
vessels
(boat, ship);9) adjectives
(green, blue, grey, white, small, thick, high, old, good);10) verbs
(see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink).
5. The
earliest group of English borrowings.
Borrowings
are words taking from the other languages and assimilated. There are
two reasons: 1) Direct contact between two peoples speaking different
languages. 2) When there is a cultural need to borrow a word from the
other language. The English vocabulary contains a great number of
words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in
the history of the language which is closely connected with the
history of the nation speaking the language.
In
the first century B.C. the British Isles were occupied by the Roman
Empire. Highly civilized Romans who spoke Latin changed the life of
the “barbarians” greatly. They taught them new and useful things,
eg. how to make butter and cheese; introduced new fruits and
vegetables: cherry, pear, plum, pea, pepper, even the word plant ;
introduced new utensils and food-stuffs: cup; kitchen , mill, port,
wine . The Latin castrum (a fortified camp) can be traced in the
geographic names Chester, Lancaster, Leicester, Manchester,
Rochester.They lived in the British Isles 400 years. In the V century
A.D. Roman Empire died, it was conquered by the Barbarians. So, the
Roman invasion was finished.
In
the 5th century A.D. several of the Germanic tribes (the Angles, the
Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the English Channel to the
British Isles. They were confronted by the Celts, the original
inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts retreated to the North and
South-West (Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). But the conquerors used to
have numerous contacts with the defeated Celts and due to this fact
they got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words (Mod.
English bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle, bog, tall,
penguin).Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were
geographic names: the rivers Avon, Exe, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic
words meaning «river» and «water».
6. The
Germanic element of the English vocabulary. Scandinavian borrowings.
In
the 5th century A.D. several of the Germanic tribes (the Angles, the
Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the English Channel to the
British Isles. They were confronted by the Celts, the original
inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts retreated to the North and
South-West (Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). But the conquerors used to
have numerous contacts with the defeated Celts and due to this fact
they got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words (Mod.
English bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle, bog, tall,
penguin).Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were
geographic names: the rivers Avon, Exe, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic
words meaning «river» and «water».
The
Germanic element of the vocabulary became the bulk of the Old English
vocabulary. These are words of roots common to all or most Germanic
languages. Some of them are the same as in the Indo-European element:
1) parts
of the human body
(head, hand, arm, finger, bone); 2) animals
(bear, fox, calf);3) plants
(oak, fir, grass);4) natural
phenomena
(rain, frost); 5) seasons
of the year
(winter, spring, summer); 6) landscape
features
(sea, land);7) human
dwellings and furniture
(house, room, bench);8) sea
vessels
(boat, ship);9) adjectives
(green, blue, grey, white, small, thick, high, old, good); 10) verbs
(see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink).
From
the end of the 8lh to the middle of the 11th cent. England underwent
several Scandinavian invasions which left their trace on the English
vocabulary. Some of the words of Scandinavian origin are recognizable
by the initial sk- combination: sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt.
Among
the Scandinavian borrowings such parts of speech are most numerous
as: nouns
(anger, bag, cake, dirt, egg, fellow, flake, fog, gate, gun, husband,
law, leg, lump, lunch, steak, window, wing); verbs
(blend, call, cast, crash, cut, drag, drown, dwell, gasp, gaze, get,
glitter, guess, happen, hit, huny, jump, mistake, scream, smile,
struggle, take, want, welcome); adjectives
(big, cosy, flat, ill, nasty, odd, shy, tight, tipsy, ugly);
pronouns
(both, they, them, their).
7. The
Norman French borrowings.
In
1066 the famous Battle of Hastings took place. The English were
defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror. This event
started the epoch of the Norman Conquest. England became a bi-lingual
country. French words of the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect
of social life. They are called Norman French borrowings (Normans
belonged to the race of Scandinavian origin but during their
residence in Normandy they had given up the native language and
adopted the French dialect). Such borrowings are especially numerous
in official communication, military, judicial, administrative,
educational, scientific, religious spheres. The invaders oppressed
the conquered people but they could not make then forget their own
language and speak theirs. The Normans behaved like the masters of
the land they had conquered.The English nobility and the clergy tried
to satisfy the new lords and hurried to learn the Norman French. But
they could not make their servants – common, poor English people –
follow their example. They went on speaking English as well as the
inhabitants of rural districts.
As
for the Norman French vocabulary it was mainly of Latin origin. They
may be divided according to the spheres of use: •administrative
words (state, government, parliament, council, power, administer,
document, client) • legal terms (court, judge, justice, crime,
prison, arrest, persecute, prison, plea, punish, verdict); •military
terms (army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy, advance,
adventure, camp,chief, command, conquer, destroy, invade, save,
serve, station, victory) • educational terms (pupil, lesson,
library, science, pen, pencil); • names of plants and trees
(cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, onion, radish, violet,cucumber, lily,
palm) •names of kinship (niece, nephew, uncle, aunt); •names of
civil communication (act, baron, chamber, commerce, culture, duke,
duchess, estate, gentry, marry palace, people, person, public,
region, royal) • everyday life (table, plate, saucer, dinner,
supper, river, autumn, beast, beef cage, cane, cave, clear, cry,
date, dress, face, save, size, sum, use)
Words
were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through
French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are
not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups
of these borrowings: words relating to literature and music
(belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette); words
relating to military affairs (corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre);
words relating to buildings and furniture (entresol, chateau,
bureau); words relating to food and cooking (ragout, cuisine).
8. The
Renaissance Period borrowings. Borrowings of the 17-20th centuries.
During
the Renaissance Period a lot of Latin and Greek words appeared in
English. As for the Latin (Italian) borrowings they were mostly
abstract words (minor, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to
create). There were naturally numerous scientific and artistic terms
(datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). The same is
true of Greek Renaissance borrowings (atom, cycle, ethics, esthete).
The main linguistic and literature terms are of Greek origin as well:
diphthong, grammar, metaphor, monophthong, seme. Some of European
proper names are Greek: Alexander, Andrew, Basil, Gregory, Luke,
Nicholas, Pater; Angela, Barbara, Cora, Delia, Doris, Margaret,
Penelope, Sophia.
Some
of widely used Latin borrowings are used contracted: a.d. (anno
domini) –нашої ери , a.m. (ante meridiem) – до опівдня,
cf.(confer)-порівняйте, i.e. (id est)- тобто, v., vs.
(versus) – проти.
Cultural
and trade relations between Italy and England brought many Italian
words into English. The earliest Italian borrowings came into English
in the 14th century, it was the word «bank» (from the Italian
«banko» – «bench»). Italian money-lenders and money changers
sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered looses they turned
over their benches, it was called «banko rotta» from which the
English word «bankrupt» originated. In the 17th century some
geological terms were borrowed: volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At
the same time some political terms were borrowed: manifesto,
bulletin. But mostly Italian is famous for its influence in music and
in all Indo-European languages musical terms were borrowed from
Italian: alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio,
quartet, opera, piano, violin. Among the 20th century Italian
borrowings we can mention: autostrada, dilettante, graffito.
Spanish
borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant.
There are the following semantic groups of them: trade terms (cargo,
embargo); names of damces and musical instruments (tango, rumba,
guitar); names of vegetables and fruit (tomato, potato, tobacco,
banana, apricot).
There
were constant contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed
words from one language into the other. Among early Russian
borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations,
such as rouble, copeck, pood, vodka, and also words relating to
nature, such as taiga, tundra, steppe etc.
There
is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English
through Russian literature of the 19th century: Narodnik, moujik,
duma, zemstvo, volost etc. and also words which were formed in Russia
with Latin roots, such as nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.
After
the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian
connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of
them were borrowed into English, such as collectivization, udarnik,
Komsomol etc. and also translation loans, such as collective farm,
five-year plan etc.
One
more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such
as nomenclatura, apparatchik etc.
9. International
words. Etymological doublets. Assimilation.
International
words. It is often the case when a word is borrowed by several
languages and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts
which are significant in the field of communication. Many of them are
of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are,
international,-e.g. philosophy, chemistry, biology, sport terms:
football, baseball, tennis; foodstuffs and fruits imported from
exotic countries: coffee, chocolate, banana, grapefruit, coca-cola;
clothing:pullover, short, jeans. The English language also
contributed a considerable number of international words to world
languages: volley-ball, hockey, cricket, rugby, golf etc.
Etymological
doublets
– pairs of words which have one and the same original form but
which have acquired different forms and even different meanings
during the course of linguistic development. E.g. the words shirt and
skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native
word, skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonetic shape is
different, and yet there is a certain resemblance which reflects
their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily
associated: they both denote articles of clothing. Such words as
these two originating from the same etymological source, but
differing in phonetic shape and in meaning are called etymological
doublets.
Assimilation
– the process of adaptation of phonetic, grammatical and semantic
features of the language. Assimilation is a general term in phonetics
for the process by which a speech sound becomes similar or identical
to a neighboring sound. In the opposite process, dissimilation,
sounds become less similar to one another. For example, the Latin
prefix in- 'not, non-, un-' appears in English as il-, im-. and ir-
in the words illegal, immoral, impossible (both m and p are bilabial
consonants), and irresponsible as well as the unassimilated original
form in- in indecent and incompetent. In rapid speech native speakers
of English tend to pronounce ten bucks as though it were written
tembucks, and in anticipation of the voiceless s in son the final
consonant of his in his son is not as fully voiced as the s in his
daughter, where it clearly is [z]." Regressive assimilation-
assimilation in which a following sound has an effect on a preceding
one, as in pronouncing have in have to as [haf] influenced by the
voiceless (t) in to. Progressive assimilation assimilation in which a
preceding sound has an effect on a following one, as in shortening
captain to cap'm rather than cap'n. Reciprocal assimilation -when
both sounds (the assimilating and the assimilated one) under go
changes. Historically this has occurred in words like: Soldier,
picture or fissure. where the reconstructable earlier pronunciation
/‘soυldjər/, /‘pıktu:r/, /‘fısju:r/ has become
/‘səυldзə/,/‘pıkt∫ə/, /fı∫ə/
In
current colloquial English, similar assimilation occurs in phrases
such as "What d’you want" /wt∫əwnt/ or
Could
you? /‘kυdZu:/.
Translation-loans
(калька).
This term is equivalent to borrowing. Translation-loans are not
taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the
same phonetic shape in which they have been functioning in their own
language, but undergo the process of translation. It is obvious that
only compound words can be subjected to such an operation, each stem
being translated separately. E.g. collective farm (колгосп),
wonder child (Wunderkind); five-year-plan (n 'ятирічка).
10. Classification
of morphemes from the semantic point of view.
Morphology
is a branch of linguistics which studied how groups of sounds are
joint together to make words. A great many words can consist of
smaller meaningful structural units called morphemes (morphe-form,
logos – word, study).
From
the semantic point of view all morphemes are divided into root
morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes). The root is
the lexical nucleus of a word. It is common to a set of words that
make up a lexical word-cluster, e.g. act in act, actor, action,
active, inactive; mean in mean, meaning, meaningful, meaningless.
There exist many roots which coincide with root-words, e.g. man, son,
desk, tree, black, red, see, look, etc.
The
affixes, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root and
does not change the part of speech (unhappy, dissatisfied, rewrite,
discover) and suffixes which follow the root and may change the part
of speech (friendship, peaceful, worker, slowly, selfish, dusty).
Words
which consist of a root and an affix (or several affixes) are called
derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of
word-building known as affixation (or derivation). (e.g. study –
student, slow - slowly)
The
part of a word consisting of a root and an affix is called a stem. In
English words stern and root often coincide. Stems that coincide with
roots are known as simple stems, e.g. boy's, trees, reads etc. Stems
that contain one or more affixes are derived stems, e.g. teacher's,
governments, unremarkable etc.
From
the structural point of view morphemes fall into 3 types: free, bound
and semi-bound morphemes.
11. Classification
of morphemes from the structural point of view.
Morphology
is a branch of linguistics which studied how groups of sounds are
joint together to make words. A great many words can consist of
smaller meaningful structural units called morphemes (morphe-form,
logos – word, study).
From
the semantic point of view all morphemes are divided into root
morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes).
From
the structural point of view morphemes fall into 3 types: free, bound
and semi-bound morphemes.
A
free morpheme can stand alone as a word, e.g. (friendly, friendship,
unfriendly (friend).
Bound
morphemes occur only as constituent parts of words, e.g. freedom,
greatly, poetic, depart, enlarge, deceive, receive, resist,
etc.(cannot function as a word)
Semi-bound
morphemes can function both as affixes and as free morphemes (i.e.
words), e.g. after, half, man, well, self (v)s. after-thought,
half-baked, half-naked, , well-known,himself, oneself.
Bound
morphemes can be further classified as:
1)
derivational – when combined with a root, change either the
semantic meaning or part of the affected word – a noun (happy –
happiness)
2)
inflectional – modify a verb’s tense or a noun’s number without
affecting the word’s meaning or class.
(applying
inflectional morphemes to words are adding –s to the root dog to
form dogs and adding –ed to form waited).
12. Word-formation.
The main types of word-formation in English.
English
words fall into 4 main structural types: 1) simple words (root words)
which have only a root morpheme in their structure, e.g. man, sky,
pen, go, look, find, bright, ling, far, back.2) derived words
(affixational derivatives) which consist of a root and one or more
affixes, e.g. joyful, retake, undo, childhood, disagreement,
reproduce, indifferent etc.; 3) compound words (compounds) in which 2
or more stems are combined into a lexical unit, e.g. classroom,
whitewash, salesgirl, blackbird, forget-me-not, woman-doctor;
4)derivational compounds in which phrase components are joined
together by means of compounding and affixation, e.g. long-legged,
black-eyed, bald-headed, strong-willed.
Word-formation
is the process of creating new words from the material available in
the word-stock according to certain structural and semantic patterns
specific for the given language. Various types of word-formation in
Modern English possess different degrees of productivity.
Some
of them are highly-productive (affixation, conversion, compounding,
shortening); others are semi-productive (back-formation,
sound-imitation); and non-productive (sound interchange, change of
stress).
13. Affixation.
Suffixes. Prefixes.
The
affixes, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root and
does not change the part of speech (unhappy, dissatisfied, rewrite,
discover) and suffixes which follow the root and may change the part
of speech (friendship, peaceful, worker, slowly, selfish, dusty).
Affixation
is the formation of new words with the help of suffixes and prefixes.
HIGHLY-PRODUCTIVE TYPE.
From
the etymological point of view affixes are divided into native -er,
teacher –ing singing, un-, mis-) and borrowed (-tion, -ment, -ist,
-ism, anti-, re-, sub-).
Suffixes
have been classified according to their origin, parts of speech they
served to form, their frequency, productivity and other
characteristics. 1 Noun-forming suffixes: -age (bondage); -ance/-ence
(assistance, reference); -ant/-ent (student); -dom (kingdom,
freedom); -ее (employee); -er; -ess (actress, lioness); -hood
(manhood); -ing (building, meaning); -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation;
-ism/-icism (heroism, criticism); -ist (novelist, communist); -ment
(government); -ness (tenderness); -ship (friendship).
Adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble (unbearable, audible,
soluble); -al (formal); -ic (poetic); -ical (ethical); -ant/-ent
(repentant, dependent); -ary (revolutionary); -ate/-ete (accurate,
complete); -ed/-d (wooded); -ful (delightful); -an/-ian (African,
Australian); -ish (Irish, reddish, childish); -ive (active); -less
(useless); -like (lifelike); -ly (manly); -ous/-ious (tremendous,
curious); -some (tiresome); -y (cloudy, dressy). Numeral-forming
suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (seventh); -ty
(sixty). Verb-forming suffixes: -ate (facilitate); -er (glimmer); -en
(shorten); -fy/-ify (terrify, speechify, solidify); -ise/-ize
(equalise); -ish (establish). Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly);
-ward/-wards (upward, northwards); -wise (likewise). Abstract nouns
are signalled by the following suffixes: -age, -ance/ -ence,
-ancy/-ency, -dom, -hood, -ing, -ion/-tion/-ation, -ism, -ment,
-ness, -ship, -th, -ty.Personal nouns that are emotionally neutral
occur with the following suffixes: -an (grammarian), -ant/-ent
(servant, student), -arian (vegetarian), -ее (examinee), -er
(porter), -ician (musician), -ist (linguist), -ite (sybarite), -or
(inspector), and a few others. Feminine suffixes may be classed as a
subgroup of personal noun suffixes. These are few and not frequent:
-ess (actress), -ine (heroine), -rix (testatrix), -ette (cosmonette).
Prefixes
change the meaning of the root of the word, they do not change the
category of a part of speech (e.g., happy – unhappy, adj,
understand – misunderstand, v, fortune – hmisfortune, n). 1 The
prefixes pre- and post- refer to time and order, e. g. historic:
pre-historic, pay: prepay, view: preview. The prefixes in-, a-, ab-,
super-, sub-, trans- modify the stem for place, e. g. income, abduct
‘to carry away’, subway, transatlantic. Several prefixes serve to
modify the meaning of the stem for degree and size. The examples are
out-, over- and under-. he group of negative prefixes is so numerous
that some scholars even find it convenient to classify prefixes into
negative and non-negative ones. The negative ones are: de-, dis-,
in-/im-/il-/ir-, поп-, ип-. The general idea of negation is
expressed by dis-; it may mean ‘not’, and be simply negative or
‘the reverse of, ‘asunder’, ‘away’, ‘apart’ and then it
is called reversative. Cf. agree : : disagree ‘not to agree’
appear : : disappear, appoint : : dis-. appoint, disgorge, dishouse
‘throw out, evict’. /n-/ im-/ir-/il have already been discussed,
so there is no necessity to dwell upon them.
While
prefixes typically maintain the word class (noun, verb, adjective,
etc) of the word it's modifying, suffixes oftentimes change the form
entirely, as is the case with «exploration» compared to «explore»
or «highlighter» compared to «highlight».
14. Classification
of affixes from the etymological point of view. Semantics of affixes.
The
affixes, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root and
does not change the part of speech (unhappy, dissatisfied, rewrite,
discover) and suffixes which follow the root and may change the part
of speech (friendship, peaceful, worker, slowly, selfish, dusty).
Affixation
is the formation of new words with the help of suffixes and prefixes.
HIGHLY-PRODUCTIVE TYPE.
From
the etymological point of view affixes are divided into native -er,
teacher –ing singing, un-, mis-) and borrowed (-tion, -ment, -ist,
-ism, anti-, re-, sub-).
Suffixes
have been classified according to their origin, parts of speech they
served to form, their frequency, productivity and other
characteristics. 1 Noun-forming suffixes: -age (bondage); -ance/-ence
(assistance, reference); -ant/-ent (student); -dom (kingdom,
freedom); -ее (employee); -er; -ess (actress, lioness); -hood
(manhood); -ing (building, meaning); -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation;
-ism/-icism (heroism, criticism); -ist (novelist, communist); -ment
(government); -ness (tenderness); -ship (friendship).
Adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble (unbearable, audible,
soluble); -al (formal); -ic (poetic); -ical (ethical); -ant/-ent
(repentant, dependent); -ary (revolutionary); -ate/-ete (accurate,
complete); -ed/-d (wooded); -ful (delightful); -an/-ian (African,
Australian); -ish (Irish, reddish, childish); -ive (active); -less
(useless); -like (lifelike); -ly (manly); -ous/-ious (tremendous,
curious); -some (tiresome); -y (cloudy, dressy). Numeral-forming
suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (seventh); -ty
(sixty). Verb-forming suffixes: -ate (facilitate); -er (glimmer); -en
(shorten); -fy/-ify (terrify, speechify, solidify); -ise/-ize
(equalise); -ish (establish). Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly);
-ward/-wards (upward, northwards); -wise (likewise). Abstract nouns
are signalled by the following suffixes: -age, -ance/ -ence,
-ancy/-ency, -dom, -hood, -ing, -ion/-tion/-ation, -ism, -ment,
-ness, -ship, -th, -ty.Personal nouns that are emotionally neutral
occur with the following suffixes: -an (grammarian), -ant/-ent
(servant, student), -arian (vegetarian), -ее (examinee), -er
(porter), -ician (musician), -ist (linguist), -ite (sybarite), -or
(inspector), and a few others. Feminine suffixes may be classed as a
subgroup of personal noun suffixes. These are few and not frequent:
-ess (actress), -ine (heroine), -rix (testatrix), -ette (cosmonette).
Prefixes
change the meaning of the root of the word, they do not change the
category of a part of speech (e.g., happy – unhappy, adj,
understand – misunderstand, v, fortune – hmisfortune, n). 1 The
prefixes pre- and post- refer to time and order, e. g. historic:
pre-historic, pay: prepay, view: preview. The prefixes in-, a-, ab-,
super-, sub-, trans- modify the stem for place, e. g. income, abduct
‘to carry away’, subway, transatlantic. Several prefixes serve to
modify the meaning of the stem for degree and size. The examples are
out-, over- and under-. he group of negative prefixes is so numerous
that some scholars even find it convenient to classify prefixes into
negative and non-negative ones. The negative ones are: de-, dis-,
in-/im-/il-/ir-, поп-, ип-. The general idea of negation is
expressed by dis-; it may mean ‘not’, and be simply negative or
‘the reverse of, ‘asunder’, ‘away’, ‘apart’ and then it
is called reversative. Cf. agree : : disagree ‘not to agree’
appear : : disappear, appoint : : dis-. appoint, disgorge, dishouse
‘throw out, evict’. /n-/ im-/ir-/il have already been discussed,
so there is no necessity to dwell upon them.
While
prefixes typically maintain the word class (noun, verb, adjective,
etc) of the word it's modifying, suffixes oftentimes change the form
entirely, as is the case with «exploration» compared to «explore»
or «highlighter» compared to «highlight».
15. Conversion
as a type of word-formation. Parts of speech affected by conversion.
Conversion
is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. The
term «conversion» first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet «New
English Grammar» in 1891. Conversion is sometimes referred to as an
affixless way of word-building or even affixless derivation. It
consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the
category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original
word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs
from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily
associated with it. This type is very productive in English and
non-productive in Ukrainian. This type is characteristic of the
English language due to its analytical structure.
Conversion
is the word formation process which make a new word by means of
changing the grammatical category without changing the morphological
structure. The most productive form of conversion in English is noun
to verb conversion. name – to name, Google – to google, pocket –
to pocket. Another productive form of conversion in English is verb
to noun conversionto call – call, to laugh – laugh, to visit –
visit.
The
2 categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are
nouns and verbs, e.g. verbs made from nouns: hand, back, face,
monkey, blackmail; nouns made from verbs: do (event, incident), go
(energy), walk, worry, show, run;
verbs
made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to wet, to dry.
Others
parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the
following examples show: to down, to out, the ups and downs, the ins
and outs.
16. Composition
(compounding). Structural types of compounds.
Compounding
(composition).
It is the type of word-building in which a new word is produced by
combining 2 or more stems.Compounds are characterized by formal ans
semantic unity. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon:
a) unity of stress; b) solid or hyphonated spelling; c) semantic
unity; d) unity of morphological and syntactic functioning. These are
characteristic features of compound words in all languages. For
English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a
rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first
component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double
stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first
component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g.
blood-vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses,
e.g. snow-white, sky-blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with
word-groups unless they have solid or hyphonated spelling.Semantic
unity means that the semantics of it’s components merged into a new
common meaning.
Compounding
(composition) is one of the most productive types of word-building
(alongside with affixation and conversion).
There
are 3 structural types of compounds:
1)
neutral compounds – their elements are placed one after another
without any linking elements: blackbird, schoolboy, classmate,
bedroom, sunflower,
2)
morphological – the elements are joined together by a linking vowel
or a consonant:Anglo-Saxon, spokesman, statesman, handicraft,
handiwork.Morphological compounds are very few in number. This type
is non-productive;
3)
syntactic compounds
– are
segments of speech, the result of combination of a free
word-group
into one unit: lily-of-the-valley, Jack-of all-trades,
good-for-nothing,
mother-in-law,
up-to-date, go-between. In this group of compounds we find a great
number of neologisms.
The
structure of most compounds is transparent and clearly shows the
origin of these words from word-combinations. The compounds whose
meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their
constituent parts are called idiomatic compounds, in contrast to the
non-idiomatic, whose meaning can be described as the sum of their
constituent parts. English compounds have the unity of morphological
and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part
of it and only one component changes grammatically, e.g. «These
girls are chatter-boxes».
«Chatter-boxes»
is a predicative in the sentence and only the second component
changes grammatically.
17. Shortening.
Types of shortening. Stylistic characteristics of shortened words.
Back-formation.
Shortening
– the formation of a new word by cutting off a part of the word; is
the process and the result of forming a word out of the initial
elements (letters, morphemes) of a word combination.Shortening. There
exist 2 main types of shortening: contraction and
abbreviation.Contraction (clipping). Shortenings (or contracted
words) are produced by making a new word from a syllable or two of
the original word. The latter may lose its beginning (phone –
telephone, story – history, plane – aeroplane), its ending (ad –
advertisement, lab – laboratory, doc – doctor, exam –
examination, math – mathematics) or both the beginning and the
ending (flu – influenza, fridge – refrigerator, Liz –
Elizabeth).
Abbreviation
(initial shortening) – noun by subtracting what was mistakenly
associated with the English suffixes.
18. Semasiology.
Semantics. Lexical meaning (16+17+18).
Semasiology
is the branch of lexicology which studies the meaning of lexical
units; is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics or meaning
of linguistic units belonging to different language levels. The main
objects of semasiological study are as follows: semantic development
of words, its causes and classification, relevant distinctive
features and types of lexical meaning, polysemy and semantic
structure of word, semantic groupings and connections in the
vocabulary system, i.e. synonyms, antonyms, etc.The modern approach
to semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of a word
(i.e. the meaning) presents a structure which is called the semantic
structure of the word. The main semantic structures of a word are
monosemy and polysemy. Semasiology is the branch of lexicology which
studies the meaning of lexical units; is a branch of linguistics
which studies semantics or meaning of linguistic units belonging to
different language levels. Semantics is a branch of linguistic which
studies the meaning of language units.Meaning is a component of the
word through which a consept is communicated.the meaning of a word is
usuallyin a form of a structure that’s why it is called the
semantic structure of the word.Lexical meaning reflects the concept
expressed by the given word.
19. Monosemy.
Polysemy.
Monosemy
is the existence within one word of only one meaning. Monosemantic
words are comparatively few in number. They are mainly scientific
terms (biochemistry, cybernetics, bronchitis, molecule), some
pronouns (this, my, both), numerals.M.- Words or phrases that have a
single meaning; absence of ambiguity.Polysemy is the existence within
one word of several connected meanings. One of them is the main
(central) meaning, whereas the rest are associated (marginal)
meanings. Polysemantic words constitute the bulk of the English
vocabulary. E.g.: face (п.) 1) the front of the head (the main
meaning); 2) the expression of the countenance; 3) the main or front
surface; 4) the surface that is marked, as of a clock; 5) appearance;
outward aspect; 6) dignity, self-respect (associated meanings).The
word «polysemy» means «plurality of meanings», it exists only in
the language, not in speech. A word having several meanings is called
polysemantic. Most English words are polysemantic.
20. Types
of semantic components within a semantic structure of a word.
The
modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the
inner form of the word (i. e. its meaning) presents a structure,
which is called the semantic structure of the word. Semantic
structure is generally known that most words includes several
concepts and possess the corresponding number of meanings. A word
having several meanings is called polysemantic, and the ability of
words to have more than one meaning is described by the term
polysemy. At the first level semantic structure of a word is treated
as a system of meanings. For example, semantic structure of the noun
fire could be roughly presented by this scheme (only the most
frequent meanings are given) The second level of analysis of the
semantic structure of a word. Within the semantic structure of the
polysemantic words we distinguish between 2 components:
denotative
(expresses the concept, it is a semantic nucleas of a word)It is
avoid of emotional colouring
connotative
(figurative, accosiated meaning) reflects additional semantic
colouring of a word. It shows the possible associations between
objects of real life.To understand correct connotative meaning
context should be taken into account.
21. Reasons
of developments of new meanings. Linguistic metaphor.
The
process of development of a new meaning is called transference. It
means that one and the same name is transferred from the object to
the otner due to the similarity between them.The usual pattern of a
word’s semantic development is from monosemy to polysemy, with two
and more meanings developing into a complex semantic structure.The
process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is
traditionally termed transference. (The word may transfer from one
referent onto another thus acquiring a new meaning).The type of
transference based on resemblance (similarity) is called linguistic
metaphor.It is fixed in dictionaries and belongs to the system of
language. A new meaning appears as a result of associating 2 objects
(phenomena, qualities, shape, function, position, colour,
temperature, etc.) due to their outward similarity. E.g. box (a small
separate enclosure forming a part of a theatre) developed on the
basis of its former meaning (a rectangular container used for packing
or storing things). Other examples of linguistic metaphor are: the
teeth of a saw, the neck of a bottle, the eye of a needle, the foot
of the mountain, to catch an idea, to grasp a chance (opportunity).
Linguistic metaphor can be represented by nouns, adjectives, verbs.
22. Homonyms.
Traditional formal classification of homonyms.
Homonyms
are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in
one of these aspects, but different in their meaning. E.g.:Bank – a
shore.Bank – an institution for receiving, lending, exchanging, and
safeguarding money.Ball – a sphere, a round object used in
games.Ball – a large dancing party.Walter Skeat classified homonyms
according to their spelling and sound forms. He pointed out three
groups. Homonyms which are the same in sound and spelling are termed
perfect homonyms (homonyms proper) (e.g. the given above ball,
bank).Homophones are the same in sound but different in spelling.
E.g.: night – knight, or – ore – oar, piece – peace, scent –
cent, sent; to steal – to steel; son – sun; rite, n – to
write, – right; sea – to see. Homographs – words which are the
same in spelling but different in sound. E.g.: To lead – lead; to
tear – tear; to polish – Polish, bow – to bow.
Homonyms
may be classified by the type of their meaning. In this case one
should distinguish between:
Lexical
homonyms which belong to the same part of speech, e.g. light (легкий,
світлий);
club (клуб,
кийок,
клюшка);
bear (терпіти,
нести);
Grammatical
homonyms which belong to different parts of speech, e.g. row (гребти,
ряд);
weather – whether, brothers – brother’s;
Homoforms
which are identical only in some of their paradigm constituents, e.g.
bore, n. – bore (p.p. bear); scent – sent; to found – found
(p.p. find).
23. Synonyms.
Synonymic dominant. Classification of synonyms according to
Academician V.V.Vinogradov.
Synonyms
are words belonging to the same part of speech, differing in sound
form, and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical
denotative meanings. There are such main types of synonyms:
1.
ideographic
synonyms
which differ in shades of meaning but convey the same concept, e.g.
to shake – to tremble – to shiver – to quiver; fast – rapid –
swift – quick;
2.
stylistic
synonyms
which differ in stylistic characteristics, e.g. father – parent –
dad (daddy) – papa – governor; to eat – to partake – to wolf
– to lay in.
Stylistic
synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation. In most cases the
abbreviated form belongs to the colloquial style, and the full form
to the neutral style, e.g. examination – exam. Among stylistic
synonyms we can point out a special group of words which are called
euphemisms. These are words used to substitute some unpleasant or
offensive words, e.g. the late instead of dead, to perspire instead
of to sweat etc.
Absolute
synonyms are quite alike in their meanings and stylistic colouring.
They are interchangeable in all contexts and are very rare, e.g. to
moan – to groan, fatherland – motherland – homeland;
word-building – word-formation; compounding – composition.
Each
group of synonyms comprises a synonymic dominant – the unit
possessing the most general meaning of the kind which can substitute
any word in the group, e.g. to shine – to flash, to gleam, to
glisten, to sparkle, to glitter, to shimmer, to glimmer; red –
purple, scarlet, crimson.
In
English there are a lot of synonyms because there are many
borrowings, e.g. hearty (native) – cordial (borrowing).
24. Antonyms.
Classification of antonyms. Distribution of antonyms among parts of
speech.
We
use the term “antonyms” to indicate words of the same category of
parts of speech which have contrasting meanings, e.g. hot – cold,
light – dark, happiness – sorrow, to accept – to reject, up –
down.
Antonyms
fall into 2 main groups:
1.
root (absolute) antonyms (those which are of different roots), e.g.
long – short, quickly – slowly, up – down, love – hatred, to
start – to finish;
2. affixational
(derivational) antonyms (in which special affixes or their absence
express semantic opposition), e.g. hopeful – hopeless, faulty –
faultless, happy – unhappy, appear – disappear, regular –
irregular.
Polysemantic
words usually have antonyms for each of their lexico-semantic variant
(component of lexical meaning): a dull knife – a sharp knife, a
dull boy – a bright boy, a dull novel – a thrilling novel.
Antonymy
is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of speech.
Most antonyms are adjectives because qualitative characteristics are
easily compared and contrasted: high – low, wide – narrow, strong
– weak, old – young. Verbal pairs of antonyms are fewer in
number: to lose – to find, to live – to die, to open – to
close.Nouns are not rich in antonyms: friend – enemy, joy –
grief, good – evil, frost – heat.
Antonymic
adverbs can be a) adverbs derived from adjectives: warmly – coldly,
merrily – sadly; b) adverbs proper: now – then, here – there,
ever – never, in – out.
25. Phraseology
as a branch of linguistics. Phraseological units, idioms and free
word-groups.
Phraseological
inits, idioms and free word-groups.Phraseological units, or idioms
represent the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the
language’s vocabulary,examples: the apple of one’s eye; many men,
many minds; to kick the bucket; to make the both ends meet; a black
sheep; to cry over the spilt milk .Most Russian as well as Ukrainian
scholars use the term «phraseological unit» which was first
introduced by Academician V.V.Vinogradov. The term «idiom» widely
used by western scholars. Phraseological units are stable word-groups
characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning.
Phraseological units exist in the language as ready-made units. The
same as words they express a single notion and are used in a sentence
as one part of it.
There
are 2 major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units
and word-groups: semantic and structural.The semantic shift affecting
phraseological units does not consist in a mere change of meanings of
each separate constituent part of the unit e.g. to have a bee in
one’s bonnet means «to have an obsession about something; to be
eccentric or even a little mad».
In
the traditional approach, phraseological units have been defined as
word-groups conveying a single concept (whereas in free word-groups
each meaningful component stands for a separate concept).
The
structural criterion also brings forth distinctive features
characterizing phraseological units and contrasting them to free
word-groups. e.g. a bee in smb’s bonnet – a bee in his hat (an
error, a silly choice of words); to build a castle in the air – to
build castles in the air; the early birds – early birds.
26. V.V.Vinogradov’s
system of phraseological units classification.
Phraseological
units are stable word-groups characterized by a completely or
partially transferred meaning. Phraseological units cannot be made in
the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made
units. The same as words they express a single notion and are used in
a sentence as one part of it.
There
are 2 major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units
and word-groups: semantic and structural.
The
classification system of phraseological units made by Academician
V.V.Vinogradov, was the first classification system based on the
semantic principle. According to the classification based on the
semantic principle English phraseological units fall into the
following classes:
1.
Phraseological
combinations
– word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They are clearly
motivated, the meaning of a unit can be easily deduced from the
meanings of its constituents, e.g. to break silence, to make friends,
to take into account, now and then.
2.
Phraseological
unities
– word-groups with a completely changed meaning; the meaning of the
unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts.
They are motivated units or, putting it another way, the meaning of
the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of the constituent
parts. Phraseological unities, are much more numerous. to lose one's
head – to be at a loss what to do; to be out of one’s mind; to
lose one’s heart to smb. – to fall in love; a big bug/pot, si. –
a person of importance.
3.
Phraseological
fusions
are completely non-motivated word-groups, represent as their name
suggests the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of
components is com-pletely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by
its expressiveness and emotional proper-ties. Phraseological fusions
are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal
translation into other languages, cf.: to come a cropper - to come to
disaster; neck and crop – entirely, altogether, thoroughly; at
sixes and sevens - in confusion or in disagreement.
27. The
structural principle of phraseological units classification.
The
structural principle of classifying phraseological units is based on
their ability to perform the same syntactical functions as words. In
the traditional structural approach, the following principal groups
of phraseological units are distinguishable:
Verbal:
to run for one’s (dear) life, to get (win) the upper hand, to talk
through one’s hat, to make a song and dance about something, to sit
pretty (Amer. si.);
Substantive:
dog’s life, cat-and-dog life, calflove, white lie, tall order,
birds of a feather, birds of passage, red tape, brown study;
Adjectival:
high and mighty, spick and span, brand new, safe and sound, (as) cool
as a cucumber, (as) nervous as a cat, (as) weak as a kitten, (as)
good as gold (usu. spoken about children), (as) pretty as a picture,
as large as life, (as) slippery as an eel, (as) thick as thieves,
(as) drunk as an owl (si.), (as) mad as a hatter/a hare in March;
Adverbial:
high and low -* They searchedfor him high and low;
by
hook or by crook -* She decided that, by hook or by crook, she must
marry him;
for
love or money -» He came to the conclusion that a really good job
couldn 7 be found for love or money;
in
cold blood -* The crime was said to have been committed in cold
blood;
to
the bitter end -*• to fight to the bitter end;
by
a long chalk -* It is not the same thing, by a long chalk.
Interjectional:
my God/by Jove! by George! goodness gracious! good Heavens! sakes
alive!
28. Proverbs,
sayings, aphoristic familiar expressions. Systems for proverbs
classification.
Proverbs
are short intelligent sayings that convey the essence of human
experience about life, society, and the world. Such expressions are
orally handed down from one generation to another. In addition to the
long experience of human beings, proverbs also hold the essence of
everyday wisdom, talent, spirit, tradition, education and folk
beliefs of a society or a nation. Although they grow out of things of
the past, proverbs concern contemporary life as well. Proverbs are
epigrammatic: they may extend from a tiny sentence to a rhyming
couplet, but convey a meaningful idea. These short statements are
generally accepted observations of life based on experience. Proverbs
change over time before taking a final shape. Sometimes a proverb may
have regional variations.
A
proverb is generally considered to be a sentence which shows the
following attributes: didactic character, picturesqueness, and
minimum variability. Proverbs are witty. No other form of folk
literature can express so much in such few words.
Professor
A. V. Koonin includes proverbs in his classification of
phraseological units and labels them communicative phraseological
units. From his point of view, one of the main criteria of a
phraseological unit is its stability. If the quotient of
phraseological stabil¬ity in a word-group is not below the minimum,
it means that we are dealing with a phra¬seological unit. The
structural type - that is, whether the unit is a combination of words
or a sentence - is irrelevant.
The
criterion of nomination and communication cannot be applied here
either, says Pro¬fessor A. V. Koonin, because there are a
considerable number of verbal phraseological units which are
word-groups (i.e. nominative units) when the verb is used in the
Active Voice, and sentences (i.e. communicative units) when the verb
is used in the Passive Voice, cf.:
to
cross (pass) the Rubicon « the Rubicon is crossed (passed);
to
shed crocodile tears «• crocodile tears are shed.
As
to familiar quotations, they are different from proverbs in their
origin. They come from literature but by and by they become part of
the language, so that many people using them do not even know that
they are quoting, and very few could accurately name the play or
passage on which they are drawing even when they are aware of using a
quotation from W. Shakespeare.
The
Shakespearian quotations have become and remain extremely numerous -
they have contributed enormously to the store of the language. Very
many come from Hamlet, cf.:
Something
is rotten in the stale of Denmark;
Brevity
is the soul of wit;
The
rest is silence;
Some
quotations are so often used that they come to be considered cliches,
hackneyed and stale phrases. Being constantly and mechanically
repeated they have lost their original expressiveness, cf.:
the
acid test, ample opportunities, astronomical figures, the arms of
Morpheus, to break the ice, the Irony of fate,
29. Reasons
for stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. Functional
style.
The
word «style» comes from Greek word «stylos» that means «stick
for writing». The word «style» is used in different branches of
science.
Functional
style is a system of language means which fulfill and serve specific
function in communication and which aim a definite effect (Illya
Halperin «Stylistics»).
Functional
style is a system of expressing means peculiar to a specific sphere
of communication (Арнольд
Ірина Володимирівна).
The
social context in which the communication is taking place determines
both the mode of dress and the modes of speech. When placed in
different situations, people instinctively choose different kinds of
words and structures to express their thought. The suitability or
unsuitability of a word for each particular situation depends on its
stylistic characteristics or, in other words, on the functional style
it represents. The term functional style is generally accepted in
modem linguistics. Professor I.V.Arnold defines it as a system of
expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication.By
the sphere of communication we mean the circumstances attending the
process of speech in each particular case: professional
communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, an
intimate letter, a speech in court, etc. All these circumstances can
be roughly classified into 3 types: stylistically neutral (basic
vocabulary); formal (a lecture, a speech in court, professional
communication) and informal (an informal talk, an intimate letter).
30. Basic
vocabulary. Neutral words.
According
to the stylistics,
we use such vocabulary as:
Neutral
(basic)
Formal
Informal
Neutral
(basic) vocabulary
is the majority, the bulk of the English language. These are words,
used by everyone and everywhere. These are words of Indo-European and
Germanic origin. These words are used in their denotative meaning.
They are devoid of emotional colouring and they are easily
recognizable. They have synonyms.
Stylistically
neutral layer (basic vocabulary)
is the living core of the vocabulary. It consists of words mostly of
native origin though it also comprises fully assimilated borrowings.
These words are stylistically neutral, and, in this respect, opposed
to formal and informal words. Their stylistic neutrality makes it
possible to use them in all kinds of situations, both formal and
informal, in verbal and written communication. These words are used
every day, everywhere and by everybody, regardless of profession,
occupation, educational level, age group or geographical location.
These are words without which no human communication would be
possible. They denote objects and phenomena of everyday importance
(e.g house, bread, man, woman, sky, table, street, go, move, speak,
easy, long, often, never, etc.). Such words are devoid of any emotive
colouring and are used in their denotative meaning, without any
additional information (connotations). In groups of synonyms neutral
words fulfill the function of the synonymic dominant.
31. Formal
layer of the English vocabulary. Learned words.
Formal
words
are called literary-bookish words, or learned
words.
But the term «learned» is not precise and does not adequately
describe the exact characteristics of these words. Learned words are
used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts, radio and
TV announcements, official talks and documents, business
correspondence, etc. As a rule, these words are mostly of foreign
origin (borrowings) and have poly-morphemic structure, e.g. solitude,
fascination, cordial, paternal, maternal, commence, assist, comprise,
endeavour, exclude, heterogeneous, hereby, thereby
etc.
learned words are mainly associated with the printed page. But this
is not exclusively so. Any educated English-speaking individual is
sure to use many learned words which shows not only his professional
skills but also the riches of everyday speech and broad outlook. So,
the sphere of use of learned wofds is not always restricted to
fiction, official or professional communication, but in common
conversational speech.
These words consist mostly of words of foreign origin.
They
are polysyllabic and pollymorphemic and mainly used in writing forms.
Yet,
excessive use of learned elements may present conversational hazards.
Utterances overloaded with such words sound absurd and ridiculous.
Writers use this phenomenon for stylistic purposes to produce a comic
effect.
32. Archaisms,
historical words. Spheres of application.
Archaisms
(obsolete words)
are moribund words, already partly or fully out of circulation, and
having their synonyms in the living language. They may be found in
historical novels (to create a particular period atmosphere), poetry,
elevated style. E.g.: thou (you), thee (you
– Objective),
thine (your), nay (no), moon (month), glee (joy), eve (evening) etc.
As a rule, archaisms have synonyms belonging to the neutral layer of
modern English vocabulary.
Sometimes a lexical archaism begins a new life, getting a new
meaning, then the old meaning becomes a semantic archaism, e. g.
«fair» in the meaning «beautiful» is a semantic archaism, but in
the meaning «blond» it belongs to the neutral style.
Historisms
(historical words)
are words which denote objects or phenomena which no longer exist.
These words are out of usage. They denote things which are out of
use.
Historical words have no neutral synonyms in Modem English. E.g.
yeoman, arbalernt, archer, shire, knight, longbow, villain, burg,
burgess.
Historical words are used in historical films / fiction and
historical places. It should be noted, that they are used in
approriate situations.
Neologisms
are words and word-groups that denote new concepts, e.g. teledish (a
dish-shaped aerial for receiving satellite television transmission),
roam-a-phonefa. portable telephone), magalog (a large magazine-format
catalogue advertising mailorder goods), etc.
The present-day neologisms are used in the sphere of science and
industry. The most popular way to form neologisms is blending
(brunch, deskfest). They come from language and may become
international words or borrowings.
Term
is a word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a
particular branch of science, technology, trade or the arts to convey
a concept peculiar to this particular activity. Examples
of terms are as follows:
Medicine:
antiseptics, anaesthesia, analgesic, anaemia, sterile, stethoscope,
skull, surgery, cardiology.
Computing:
cybercafe, cybercitizen, cyberspace, to debug, microbooster, to
deblock.
Mathematical
terms:
multiplied by, devided by, multiplication table. Linguistic
terms:
noun, verb, predicate, adverbial modifier, mood. According to their
origin, they are international words or borrowings, mainly from Greek
or Latin.
33. Poetic
words. Terms. Neologisms.
Poetic
words with elevated, «lofty» colouring are traditionally used only
in poetry. Most of them are archaic and have stylistically neutral
synonyms, e.g. lone (lonely), brow (forehead), woe (sorrow), behold
(see), oft (often), array (clothes).
Archaisms
(obsolete words) are moribund words, already partly or fully out of
circulation, and having their synonyms in the living language. They
may be found in historical novels (to create a particular period
atmosphere), poetry, elevated style. E.g.: thou (you), thee (you –
Objective), thine (your), nay (no), moon (month), glee (joy), eve
(evening) etc. As a rule, archaisms have synonyms belonging to the
neutral layer of modern English vocabulary.
Historisms
(historical words)
are words which denote objects or phenomena which no longer exist.
Historical words have no neutral synonyms in Modem English. E.g.
yeoman, arbalernt, archer, shire, knight, longbow, villain, burg,
burgess.
Neologisms
are words and word-groups that denote new concepts, e.g. teledish (a
dish-shaped aerial for receiving satellite television transmission),
roam-a-phonefa. portable telephone), magalog (a large magazine-format
catalogue advertising mailorder goods), etc.
The present-day neologisms are used in the sphere of science and
industry. The most popular way to form neologisms is blending
(brunch, deskfest). They come from language and may become
international words or borrowings.
Term
is a word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a
particular branch of science, technology, trade or the arts to convey
a concept peculiar to this particular activity. Examples
of terms are as follows:
Medicine:
antiseptics, anaesthesia, analgesic, anaemia, sterile, stethoscope,
skull, surgery, cardiology.
Computing:
cybercafe, cybercitizen, cyberspace, to debug, microbooster, to
deblock.
Mathematical
terms:
multiplied by, devided by, multiplication table. Linguistic
terms:
noun, verb, predicate, adverbial modifier, mood. According to their
origin, they are international words or borrowings, mainly from Greek
or Latin.
34. Informal
layer of the vocabulary. Characteristic features and spheres of
application.
Informal
words
and word-groups are traditionally divided into 3 types: colloquial,
slang and dialect words and word-groups.
Colloquial
words are characteristic of the informal style of spoken English.
One
should distinguish between literary (standard) colloquial words as
units of Standard English and non-literary colloquialisms that belong
to sub-standard English vocabulary.
Literary
colloquial words
are used in everyday conversations both by cultivated and uneducated
people and are also met in written literary texts. They are closer to
neutral words than to literary-bookish units, but, as a rule, have
stronger emotional colouring. They are formed on standard
word-formative patterns (contraction, conversion), e.g.: granny,
birdie, baby-sit, daily (п.), pal, chum (friend), girl (a woman of
any age), disco, do away, pram. Non-literary colloquial words
include slang, jargonisms, professionalisms and vulgarisms, dialect
words and word-groups.
Informal
words
are traditionally used in oral communication (in speech). They are
not fixed in dictionaries.
They
are divided into:
1.
Literary colloquial words. These words are used in everyday life by
both educated and non-educated people. They are very close to the
neutral meaning but they have their emotional colouring.They are used
in their connotative meaning.
2.
Non-literary colloquial words (slang). Slang appeared in the
beginning of XX century and then it spread to other countries. There
are many approaches to definition «slang»:
it
is a specific vocabulary used by low and disreputable people;
it
is a specific language, which is below the standard language and
decent communication.
Slang
words are highly emotive and expressive. They are sub-standard
substitutes of neutral word based on metaphor. This metaphor has
ironic colouring and is unpoetical. Slang words are short lived. They
are easily substituted by other slang and lose their freshness. They
can be learned only synchronically.
35. Colloquialisms.
Standard, non-standard vocabulary.
A
colloquialism is
a word, phrase, or other form used in informal language. Dictionaries
often display colloquial words and phrases with the abbreviation
colloq. as an identifier. Colloquial language, colloquial dialect, or
informal language is a variety of language commonly employed in
conversation or other communication in informal situations. The word
colloquial by its etymology originally referred to speech as
distinguished from writing, but colloquial register is fundamentally
about the degree of informality or casualness rather than the medium,
and some usage commentators thus prefer the term casualism.
Usage.
Colloquial language is distinct from formal speech or formal writing.
It is the variety of language that speakers typically use when they
are relaxed and not especially self-conscious. Some colloquial speech
contains a great deal of slang, but some contains no slang at all.
Slang is permitted in colloquial language, but it is not a necessary
element. Other examples of colloquial usage in English include
contractions or profanity. In the philosophy of language, the term
«colloquial language» refers to ordinary natural language, as
distinct from specialized forms used in logic or other areas of
philosophy. In the field of logical atomism, meaning is evaluated in
a different way than with more formal propositions. A colloquial name
or familiar name is a name or term commonly used to identify a person
or thing in informal language, in place of another usually more
formal or technical name.
Examples.
Someone
in the United States who is referring to very heavy rainfall might
say it is «raining
cats and dogs».
The person listening would have to understand from general usage that
the animals are not falling from the sky during a rainstorm.
Expressions
used can mean completely different things outside of the country
where the colloquialism is used. For example, a woman in London who
had a conversation with a man might ask him to «knock
me up tomorrow morning»,
which means to give her a wake-up call. A person from the United
States would have no idea of the meaning of the sentence because in
the U.S., the term «knock
up»
is colloquial for impregnate.
It
is a mistake to think of the «standard» variety of a language as
the language, with dialects relegated to substandard status. Instead,
by subscribing to the definition of «dialect» as a distinct
variety, we are agreeing that the standard variety itself is a
dialect.
While
the standard variety is regarded as a model for purposes that include
language teaching and the general transmission of day-to-day
information, structurally there is nothing inherently superior in the
make-up of a «standard dialect»: non-standard dialects have
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation which are equally detailed in
structure, and indeed are often imbued with pedigrees far older than
those of the standard variety of the day.
36. Slang.
Professionalisms.
Slang
comprises highly informal words not accepted for dignified use. It
seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of
present-day English. The «New Oxford English Dictionary» defines
slang as follows:
the
special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or
disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type;
the
cant or jargon of a certain class or period;
language
of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of
standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of
current words employed in some special sense.
As
is seen from these definitions slang is represented both as special
vocabulary and as a special language. Slang is much rather a spoken
than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech.
Slang
words,
used by most speakers in very informal communication, are highly
emotive and expressive. Such words are expressive sub-standard
substitutes for current words of standard vocabulary.
Jargonisms
stand close to slang, also being sub-standard, expressive and
emotive, but unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people,
united either professionally or socially. The aim of jargon is to
preserve secrecy within one or another social or professional group.
Jargonisms are generally neutral words with entirely new meanings
imposed on them. Most of them are absolutely incomprehensible to
those outside the social group which has invented them.
Bird
(rocket, spacecraft), garment (pressure space suit) – astronauts'
jargon; Grass, tea, weed (narcotic) – drug addicts' jargon.
Such
words are usually motivated and, like slang words, have metaphoric
character.
Professionalisms
are sub-standard colloquial words used by people of a definite trade
or profession, usually connected by common interest at work or even,
at
home.
They fulfill a socially useful function in communication,
facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message. Such words
are informal substitutes for corresponding terms. E.g.: nuke
(nuclear), Hi-Fi (high fidelity), anchors (brakes), smash-up
(accident) and the like.
Professionalisms
should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, they do not
aim at secrecy. Here are some professionalisms used in different
trades: Tin-fish (submarine), piper (a specialist who decorates
pastry with the use of a cream-pipe).
37. Jargonisms.
Vulgarisms.
Informal
words peculiar for certain social orprofessional group should be
considered as jargonisms. Jargonisms
stand close to slang, also being sub-standard, expressive and
emotive, but unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people,
united either professionally or socially. The aim of jargon is to
preserve secrecy within one or another social or professional group.
Jargonisms are generally neutral words with entirely new meanings
imposed on them. Most of them are absolutely incomprehensible to
those outside the social group which has invented them. Bird (rocket,
spacecraft), garment (pressure space suit) – astronauts' jargon;
Grass, tea, weed (narcotic) – drug addicts' jargon.
Such
words are usually motivated and, like slang words, have metaphoric
character.
Vulgarisms
are coarse words with strong emotive meaning: words denoting the
notions which are taboo in a given speech community, normallyavoided
in polite conversation. Vulgarisms include: a) expletives and swear
wordsof abusive character (e. g. damn, goddamn, bloody, son of a
bitch, bastard, to hell); b) obscence (or taboo, four-letter) words
which are highly incedent. The latter are not even fixed in common
dictionaries. They are euphemistically called «four-letter» words.
We should differentiate between 1) those which have lost shocking
power and are not meant to abuse anybody; they serve as mere signals
of strong emotions (e.g.) I know damn well. It was crazy dream. It’s
a devilish job) and 2) those which are meant to offend, insult or
abuse (e. g. the sun of a bitch; shut your bloody mouth!).
38. Dialect.
Groups of dialects in the British Isles.
Dialect
is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, which is
different from other forms of the same language, e.g. Yorkshire and
Lancashire dialects.
Linguists
distinguish local dialects and variants of English. In the British
Isles there exist 5 main groups of local dialects which developed
from Old English local dialects: Northern, Western, Midland, Eastern,
and Southern. Besides, there is Lowland (Scottish) dialect. These
dialects, used as means of oral communication, are peculiar to
comparatively small localities. They are marked by some deviations
mostly in pronunciation and vocabulary, but have no normalized
literary form.
One
of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect
of London. Some peculiarities of this dialect can be seen in the
first act of «Pigmalion» by B.Shaw: interchange of [v] and [w],
e.g. wery veil; interchange of [f] and [O], interchange of |h] and
[-], e.g. «'eart» for «heart», «heart» for «art»;
substituting the diphthong fai] by [ei], e.g. «day» is pronounced
[dai], e.g. «don't» is pronounced [do:nt]. Another feature of
Cockney is rhyming slang: «hat» is «tit for tat», «wife» is
«trouble and strife», «head» is «loaf of bread» etc.
Regional
varieties of English possessing literary form are called variants. In
the British Isles there are two variants, Scottish English and Irish
English.
Scottish
English.
Scottish English refers to the varieties of English spoken in
Scotland.
The
use of «How?» meaning «Why?»
Cot
and caught are not differentiated in most Central Scottish varieties,
Certain
vowels (such as /i/, /u/, and /æ/) are generally long but are
shortened before nasals and voiced plosives, so that crude contrasts
with crewed, need with kneed and side with sighed.
Irish
English.
Speech in the whole of Ireland is for instance rhotic – that is
speakers pronounce an <r> sound after a vowel in words like
farm, first and better.
Pairs
such as pull and pool are often homophones.
English,
such as inserting a <y> sound after an initial <k> or <g>
in words like car and garden, such that they sound a little like
«kyarr» or «gyarrden». Northern Irish English also has a very
distinctive intonation pattern and a broad Northern Irish accent is
characterized by a very noticeable tendency to raise the pitch
towards the end of an utterance, even if the speaker is not asking a
question.
39.
American
English vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar.
American
English begins its history at the beginning of the I7th century when
first English-speaking settlers began to settle on the Atlantic coast
of the American continent. The language which they brought from
England was the language spoken in England during the reign of
Elizabeth the First.
The
vocabulary used by American speakers has distinctive features of its
own. American vocabulary exclusively and constitute its specific
feature. These words are called Americanisms. The first group of such
words may be described as historical Americanisms. The first English
migrants began arriving in America at the beginning of the 17th
century. The language they spoke was in its 17th c. form.
E.g.
fall – «autumn»,
guess –
«to
think»,
sick – «ill,
unwell»
The
second group of Americanisms includes words which are specifically
American and are called proper Americanisms. They were formed by
migrants from the Old Country (England) to name the new and strange
things they came across in the New World.
E.g.
backwoods, sweet potato ,cat-bird and others. These words are made of
the «building
materials»
which are familiarly English; word-building patterns of composition
and the constituents of the compounds are essentially English as
well.
Later
proper Americanisms are represented by names of objects which are
called differently in the USA and England.
E.g.
chemist's
– drugs,
sweets – candy, underground – subway, . lift – elevator.
Differences
in pronunciation.
In
American English we have r-coloured fully articulated vowels, in the
combinations ar; er, ir, or, or, our etc. In BE the sound [o]
corresponds to the AE [^], e.g. «not».
In BE before fricatives and combinations with fricatives «a»
is pronounced as [a:], in AE it is pronounced [æ], e.g. class,
dance, answer, fast etc. There are some differences in the position
of the stress:
40. Canadian
English. Australian English.
Canadian
English.
Spelling.
The «rules» for Canadian spelling are not as cut and dried as
someone might think. There are some regional variations. The great
-our debate lies in the fact that only about 40 common words take
-our, while many common words do not. Worse still, many words that
take -our lose the extra letter when the words are elongated. Glamour
becomes glamorous, honour becomes honorary and colour becomes
coloration. However, the most recent version of the Gage Canadian
Dictionary finally gave the -our spelling precedence.
Vocabulary.
Canadian English differs from American or British English in some of
the ways. E.g.:
Anglophone:
Someone who speaks English as a first language.
Bill
vs. check: Canadians ask for the bill.
Can
vs. tin: Younger Canadians tend to eat out of cans, while older
Canadians often eat out of tins.
Chemist
vs. drugstore vs. pharmacy: Canadians don't go to chemists, at least
not when they need aspirin.
Click:
Canadian slang for kilometre. "I drove 50 clicks last week."
Corn
vs. maize: In Canada, corn is a specific cereal plant with yellow
kernels. In England, corn refers to a broader range of cereals,
including wheat, rye, oats and barley. What Canadians call corn, the
English call maize.
Elevator
vs. lift: Canadians take elevators.
Floor
vs. storey: Floor is preferred in Canada. Note that the first floor
of buildings in Quebec is actually the second floor in the rest of
the country.
Francophone:
Someone who speaks French as a first language, opposed to an
anglophone..
Gas
vs. petrol: Canadians fill the tanks of their cars with gas.
Holiday
vs. vacation: Canadians generally go on vacations.
Honour
guard: The Canadian equivalent is guard of honour.
Railroads
vs. railways: Canadians prefer railways. .
Washroom:
Canadians head for the washroom when they need to use the toilet.
Bathrooms are places with bathtubs in them.
Pronunciation.
Generally, Canadian pronunciation is almost identical to American
pronunciation, especially in Ontario. There are some small
differences, however. Canadians tend to pronounce cot the same as
caught and collar the same as caller. Many Canadians also will turn
[t] into [d], so Iron Maiden will seem to be a "heavy-meddle"
band, and the capital appears to be "Oddowa".
Australian
English.
The
Australians with British ancestors are the predominant part of the
population. Australian pronunciation is more or less the Cockney one
of the last 18th century. Australian English is different from any
accent existing in England. Australianisms. Most of the Australian
specialties in vocabulary derive from English local dialects
Australian
English / British
English
this
arvo / this
afternoon
weekender / holiday
cottage
The
vowel system of Broad Australian is very similar to Cockney. Educated
Australian is close to RP. The main specialties of the former is [ə]
in unstressed position within a word where the English use [i], and
the ending -y, which is pronounced [i]. Like in the American South
[æu] occurs in words like pound.
As
for the consonants, there are no glottal stops. Some Australians,
maybe due to Irish influx, produce rhotic words.
41. Lexicography.
Dictionary. The earliest dictionaries.
Term
lexicography
comes
from words lexis and graphis. Lexicography
is the art and craft of
compelling,
writing
and additing
dictionaries.
Term
«dictionary» comes from Latin word «dictorium» and means a
collection of a collection of words and word phrases. Dictionary is a
list (collection) of words with their definition or corresponding
words from a different language usually in one book. Dictionaries
don’t have authors. There is a compiler or editor. It refers to the
practical lexicography.
Theoretical
lexicography is
Lexicographer
is person who is professionally devoted to making dictionaries.
In
some languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only
the lemma form appears as the main word or headword in most
dictionaries. Many dictionaries also provide pronunciation
information; grammatical information; word derivations, histories, or
etymologies; illustrations, usage guidance; with examples in phrases
or sentences. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a
book
One
of the earliest dictionaries known was written in Latin during the
reign of the Emperor
Augustus. It is known by the title «De Significatu Verborum» («On
the meaning of words») and was originally compiled by Verrius
Flaccus during the 1st century AD. It was an abridged list of
difficult or antiquated words, whose usage was illustrated by
quotations from early Roman authors.
Early
English lexicography began in the Middle Ages. The need for an
English-Latin dictionary grew slowly over time and it wasn't until
1440, when «Promptorium Parvulorum» appeared, that one was written.
The
first dictionary to be at all comprehensive was Thomas Blount’s
dictionary «Glossographia» of 1566. It lists over 11,000 words.
Blount defined words derived from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Saxon,
Turkish, French and Spanish. He also explained specialist words. The
«Glossographia» provided a substantial, and often complex,
definitions for each word. Blount often refers to the words’
origins (or etymologies). This was the first monolingual English
dictionary to explore the origins of words.
42. The
first printed dictionaries.
Term
«dictionary» comes from Latin word «dictorium» and means a
collection of a collection of words and word phrases. Dictionary is a
list (collection) of words with their definition or corresponding
ords from a different language usually in one book. Dictionaries
don’t have authors. There is a compiler or editor. It refers to the
practical lexicography.
The
first dictionary to be at all comprehensive was Thomas Blount’s
dictionary «Glossographia» of 1566. It lists over 11,000 words.
Blount defined words derived from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Saxon,
Turkish, French and Spanish. He also explained specialist words. The
«Glossographia» provided a substantial, and often complex,
definitions for each word. Blount often refers to the words’
origins (or etymologies). This was the first monolingual English
dictionary to explore the origins of words.
43. English
dictionaries of the 17-20th centuries.
Term
«dictionary» comes from Latin word «dictorium» and means a
collection of a collection of words and word phrases.
Dictionary
is a list (collection) of words with their definition or
corresponding ords from a different language usually in one book.
In
1604, Robert Cawdrey wrote «A Table Alphabetical». It was the first
true English dictionary, Henry Cockeram produced the first work with
the title «The English Dictionary» in 1623. It primarily dealt with
'difficult' English words.
In
1674 John Ray produced a dictionary which dealt with dialect words.
In
1702 John Kersey published «A New English Dictionary»; or, a
complete collection of the most proper and significant words,
commonly used in the language. As the title says, the attention of
his work lay on the most used English words and not on peculiarities.
«A
Dictionary of the English Language», one of the most influential
dictionaries in the history of the English language, was prepared by
Samuel Johnson and published on April 15, 1755. The dictionary
responded to a widely felt need for stability in the language. It
took Johnson nearly 9 years to complete.
In
1773 William Kenrick published «A New Dictionary of the English
Language» («New Dictionary») which was an improvement to Johnson's
dictionary regarding pronunciation.
In
1806, Noah Webster's dictionary was published. «The Compendious
Dictionary of the English Language» by Noah Webster possessed a
large amount of encyclopedic material which has no connection with
lexicography, like tables of the moneys, tables of weights and
measures, an official list of the post-offices in the United States
or the number of inhabitants in the States. This shows a clear
emphasis on American issues and Webster laid much weight on the
distinction between American and English usage.
In
1846 Joseph's Worcester «Universal and Critical Dictionary of the
English Language» was published.
The
most complete dictionary of the English language is the Oxford
English Dictionary. The first edition was properly begun in 1860 and
was completed in 1928,
Today,
dictionaries of languages with alphabetic and syllabic writing
systems list words in alphabetical or some analogous phonetic order.
The first English alphabetical dictionary came out in 1604 and
alphabetical ordering was a rarity until the 18th century. Before
alphabetical listings, dictionaries were organized by topic, e.g. a
list of animals all together in one topic.
44. Types
of dictionaries.
Term
«dictionary» comes from Latin word «dictorium» and means a
collection of a collection of words and word phrases.
Dictionary
is a list (collection) of words with their definition or ?
corresponding ords from a different language usually in one book.
There
are many different types of dictionaries: bilingual, multilingual,
historical, biographical, geographical etc.
In
bilingual dictionaries, each entry has translations of words in
another language. For example, in a Ukrainian-English dictionary, the
entry стіл has the corresponding English word, table.
Multilanguage
dictionaries are called translating dictionaries and they contain
words and expressions of the native language and their foreign
equivalents (or vs.)
The
dictionaries may be divided into: