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Lexicolo­gy Exam Prep: Masterin­g English Vocabula­ry & Linguist­ics

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the 3rd years of study

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LEXICOLOGY EXAM QUESTIONS

1. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics. Word as an object of lexicology.

2. External and internal structure of a word. Formal and semantic unity of a word.

3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic levels of studying a word. Studying words synchronically and diachronically.

4. Etymology as a branch of linguistics. The differentiation of the present-day English vocabulary. Native words.

5. The earliest group of English borrowings.

6. The Germanic element of the English vocabulary. Scandinavian borrowings.

7. The Norman French borrowings.

8. The Renaissance Period borrowings. Borrowings of the 17-20th centuries.

9. International words. Etymological doublets. Assimilation.

10. Classification of morphemes from the semantic point of view.

11. Classification of morphemes from the structural point of view.

12. Word-formation. The main types of word-formation in English.

13. Affixation. Suffixes. Prefixes.

14. Classification of affixes from the etymological point of view. Semantics of affixes.

15. Conversion as a type of word-formation. Parts of speech affected by conversion.

16. Composition (compounding). Structural types of compounds.

17. Shortening. Types of shortening. Stylistic characteristics of shortened words. Back-formation.

18. Semasiology. Semantics. Lexical meaning.

19. Monosemy. Polysemy.

20. Types of semantic components within a semantic structure of a word.

21. Reasons of developments of new meanings. Linguistic metaphor.

22. Homonyms. Traditional formal classification of homonyms.

23. Synonyms. Synonymic dominant. Classification of synonyms according to Academician V.V.Vinogradov.

24. Antonyms. Classification of antonyms. Distribution of antonyms among parts of speech.

25. Phraseology as a branch of linguistics. Phraseological units, idioms and free word-groups.

26. V.V.Vinogradov’s system of phraseological units classification.

27. The structural principle of phraseological units classification.

28. Proverbs, sayings, aphoristic familiar expressions. Systems for proverbs classification.

29. Reasons for stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. Functional style.

30. Basic vocabulary. Neutral words.

31. Formal layer of the English vocabulary. Learned words.

32. Archaisms, historical words. Spheres of application.

33. Poetic words. Terms. Neologisms.

34. Informal layer of the vocabulary. Characteristic features and spheres of application.

35. Colloquialisms. Standard, non-standard vocabulary.

36. Slang. Professionalisms.

37. Jargonisms. Vulgarisms.

38. Dialect. Groups of dialects in the British Isles.

39. American English vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar.

40. Canadian English. Australian English.

41. Lexicography. Dictionary. The earliest dictionaries.

42. The first printed dictionaries.

43. English dictionaries of the 17-20th centuries.

44. Types of dictionaries.

1. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics. Word as an object of lexicology.

The term comes from Greek = «lexic» (word) + «logos» (study, learning)

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies words or lexical units of language. The main task is to study and to make systematic description of vocabulary referring to its origin, development and current use. Lexicology is concerned with words, variable word-groups, phraseological units and morphemes which make up words.

Vocabulary is the system of words and word groups (словосполучення) the language possess.

Word is the unit of lexical level.

  • is the main unit of human communication.

  • it is a group of sounds.

  • physical object

  • the object of lexicology

  • the main unit of language

  • the largest unit of morphological level and the smallest unit of syntactical level.

    Word is the group sounds which associated with the definite meaning.

    Word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, representing a group of sounds, having a meaning, subject to grammatical changes and characterized by formal and semantic unity.

    2. External and internal structure of a word. Formal and semantic unity of a word.

    Word is the unit of lexical level.

  • is the main unit of human communication.

  • it is a group of sounds.

  • physical object

  • the object of lexicology

  • the main unit of language

  • the largest unit of morphological level and the smallest unit of syntactical level.

    Word is the group sounds which associated with the definite meaning.

    Word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, representing a group of sounds, having a meaning, subject to grammatical changes and characterized by formal and semantic unity.

    2 types of structure:

  • external structure is morphological structure of the word (слово ззовні). I the word impressions the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefix –im, the root press, the noun-forming suffix –ion, and the grammatical suffix of plurality –s;

  • internal structure is the meaning of the word or semantic structure.The area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word is called semantics.

    Another structural aspect of the word is its unity. The word is characterized by formal and semantic unity.

    The formal unity of the word may be explained by its difference from the word group with the same elements. A word belongs to one part of speech, fulfills one syntactic function element of the word group has its own morphological and syntactic characteristics. Formal unity means that you can divide a word into separate parts. A word is changed according to its paradigm as a single whole. A blackbird (is characterized by unity, possesses a single grammatical framing: blackbird/s. The first constituent black is not subject to any grammatical changes)and a black bird (each constituent can aquire grammatical forms of its own: the blackest birds I’ve ever seen).

    The semantic unity means that word stands for one concept (поняття), a word group stands for as many concepts as many elements there are in its structure. In the word-group a black bird each of the meaning words conveys a separate concept: bird-a kind of leaving creature, black-a colour. The word blackbird conveys only one concept- the type of bird.

    A word is the largest unit of a morphological level and the smallest unit of the syntactic level.



    3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic levels of studying a word. Studying words synchronically and diachronically.

    Word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, representing a group of sounds, having a meaning, subject to grammatical changes and characterized by formal and semantic unity.

    A word can be studied on the syntegmatic and paradigmatic levels.

    On the syntagmatic level the semantic structure of the word is studied in its relationships with the neighboring units words in connected speech. In other words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed, described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts.

    On the paradigmatic level a word is studied in its relationships with the other words in the sentence (vocabulary system). When used in actual speech the word undergoes certain modifications in one of its forms. The system showing a word in all its word-forms is called a paradigm. The lexical meaning of the word is the same throughout the paradigm. The grammatical meaning varies from one form to another. The word paradigm is usually used in 2 meanings: 1) as a system of forms of one word which shows the differences and relationships between them (to see–saw– seen-seeing) 2) as a pattern according to which every part of speech may change its forms.

    By syntagmatic is meant the relationship that a linguistic element has with other elements, while by paradigmatic is meant the relationship it has with elements with which it may be replaced or substituted. The cat is on the mat (cat-mat – syntagmatical relation). The dog is on the mat (paradigmatic relation cat-dog)

    Another important objective of lexicological studies is the study of the vocabulary of a language as a system. Synchronically. To study vocabulary synchronically means at a given stage of its development. Diachronically. Means to study vocabulary in its historical development (through the period of origin to the present period). They are interconnected and interrelated because every linguistic structure and system exists in a state of constant development so that the synchronic state of a language system is a result of a long process of linguistic evaluation, of its historical development.

    General Lexicology is a part of General Linguistics – study of vocabulary of any particular language. Spesial Lexicology – particular language. The links of lexicology with other branches – morphology, grammar (the study of the grammatical structure of language; it is concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words as well as with patterns after which words are combined into word-groups and sentences), phonetics (investigates the phonetic structure of language and is concerned with the study of the outer sound-form of the word), general linguistics, history of the language, stylistics (concerned with a sudy of nature, functions and styles of languages).



    4. Etymology as a branch of linguistics. The differentiation of the present-day English vocabulary. Native words.

    Etymology comes from Greek – (“etymon” (істина, truth) + logos –word, study) is a branch of linguistics which studies the origin of words.

    English is a member of the western group of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. English vocabulary as the one of any other language is the result of its long historic development.The English vocabulary consists of native words and borrowings.

    Native words belong to the original English word-stock and are known from the old English manuscripts. They are divided into those of Indo-European stock and those of common Germanic origin.

    Indo-European words contain words of roots common to all or most languages of the Indo-European group. These words denote elementary concepts without which no human communication would be possible. The following groups can be identified: 1) family relations (mother, father, brother, son, daughter); 2) parts of human body ( foot, nose, lip, heart); 3) Animals (cow, swine, goose); 4) Plants (tree, birch, corn); 5) time of day (day, night); 6) heavenly bodies (sun, moon, star) 7) adjectives (red, new, sad); 8) the numerals from 1 to100; 9) Personal and demonstrative pronouns; 10) verbs (be, stand, sit, eat, know).

    The English proper words (власне англ.) cannot be found in any other language only in the English one (bird, boy, girl, lady, lord, woman, daisy, always).

    The Germanic element of the vocabulary became the bulk of the Old English vocabulary. These are words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of them are the same as in the Indo-European element: 1) parts of the human body (head, hand, arm, finger, bone); 2) animals (bear, fox, calf);3) plants (oak, fir, grass);4) natural phenomena (rain, frost); 5) seasons of the year (winter, spring, summer); 6) landscape features (sea, land); 7) human dwellings and furniture (house, room, bench); 8) sea vessels (boat, ship);9) adjectives (green, blue, grey, white, small, thick, high, old, good);10) verbs (see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink).



    5. The earliest group of English borrowings.

    Borrowings are words taking from the other languages and assimilated. There are two reasons: 1) Direct contact between two peoples speaking different languages. 2) When there is a cultural need to borrow a word from the other language. The English vocabulary contains a great number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking the language.

    In the first century B.C. the British Isles were occupied by the Roman Empire. Highly civilized Romans who spoke Latin changed the life of the “barbarians” greatly. They taught them new and useful things, eg. how to make butter and cheese; introduced new fruits and vegetables: cherry, pear, plum, pea, pepper, even the word plant ; introduced new utensils and food-stuffs: cup; kitchen , mill, port, wine . The Latin castrum (a fortified camp) can be traced in the geographic names Chester, Lancaster, Leicester, Manchester, Rochester.They lived in the British Isles 400 years. In the V century A.D. Roman Empire died, it was conquered by the Barbarians. So, the Roman invasion was finished.

    In the 5th century A.D. several of the Germanic tribes (the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the English Channel to the British Isles. They were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts retreated to the North and South-West (Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). But the conquerors used to have numerous contacts with the defeated Celts and due to this fact they got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words (Mod. English bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle, bog, tall, penguin).Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were geographic names: the rivers Avon, Exe, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic words meaning «river» and «water».



    6. The Germanic element of the English vocabulary. Scandinavian borrowings.

    In the 5th century A.D. several of the Germanic tribes (the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the English Channel to the British Isles. They were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts retreated to the North and South-West (Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). But the conquerors used to have numerous contacts with the defeated Celts and due to this fact they got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words (Mod. English bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle, bog, tall, penguin).Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were geographic names: the rivers Avon, Exe, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic words meaning «river» and «water».

    The Germanic element of the vocabulary became the bulk of the Old English vocabulary. These are words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of them are the same as in the Indo-European element: 1) parts of the human body (head, hand, arm, finger, bone); 2) animals (bear, fox, calf);3) plants (oak, fir, grass);4) natural phenomena (rain, frost); 5) seasons of the year (winter, spring, summer); 6) landscape features (sea, land);7) human dwellings and furniture (house, room, bench);8) sea vessels (boat, ship);9) adjectives (green, blue, grey, white, small, thick, high, old, good); 10) verbs (see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink).

    From the end of the 8lh to the middle of the 11th cent. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which left their trace on the English vocabulary. Some of the words of Scandinavian origin are recognizable by the initial sk- combination: sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt.

    Among the Scandinavian borrowings such parts of speech are most numerous as: nouns (anger, bag, cake, dirt, egg, fellow, flake, fog, gate, gun, husband, law, leg, lump, lunch, steak, window, wing); verbs (blend, call, cast, crash, cut, drag, drown, dwell, gasp, gaze, get, glitter, guess, happen, hit, huny, jump, mistake, scream, smile, struggle, take, want, welcome); adjectives (big, cosy, flat, ill, nasty, odd, shy, tight, tipsy, ugly); pronouns (both, they, them, their).



    7. The Norman French borrowings.

    In 1066 the famous Battle of Hastings took place. The English were defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror. This event started the epoch of the Norman Conquest. England became a bi-lingual country. French words of the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. They are called Norman French borrowings (Normans belonged to the race of Scandinavian origin but during their residence in Normandy they had given up the native language and adopted the French dialect). Such borrowings are especially numerous in official communication, military, judicial, administrative, educational, scientific, religious spheres. The invaders oppressed the conquered people but they could not make then forget their own language and speak theirs. The Normans behaved like the masters of the land they had conquered.The English nobility and the clergy tried to satisfy the new lords and hurried to learn the Norman French. But they could not make their servants – common, poor English people – follow their example. They went on speaking English as well as the inhabitants of rural districts.

    As for the Norman French vocabulary it was mainly of Latin origin. They may be divided according to the spheres of use: •administrative words (state, government, parliament, council, power, administer, document, client) • legal terms (court, judge, justice, crime, prison, arrest, persecute, prison, plea, punish, verdict); •military terms (army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy, advance, adventure, camp,chief, command, conquer, destroy, invade, save, serve, station, victory) • educational terms (pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil); • names of plants and trees (cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, onion, radish, violet,cucumber, lily, palm) •names of kinship (niece, nephew, uncle, aunt); •names of civil communication (act, baron, chamber, commerce, culture, duke, duchess, estate, gentry, marry palace, people, person, public, region, royal) • everyday life (table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, beast, beef cage, cane, cave, clear, cry, date, dress, face, save, size, sum, use)

    Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings: words relating to literature and music (belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette); words relating to military affairs (corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre); words relating to buildings and furniture (entresol, chateau, bureau); words relating to food and cooking (ragout, cuisine).



    8. The Renaissance Period borrowings. Borrowings of the 17-20th centuries.

    During the Renaissance Period a lot of Latin and Greek words appeared in English. As for the Latin (Italian) borrowings they were mostly abstract words (minor, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create). There were naturally numerous scientific and artistic terms (datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). The same is true of Greek Renaissance borrowings (atom, cycle, ethics, esthete). The main linguistic and literature terms are of Greek origin as well: diphthong, grammar, metaphor, monophthong, seme. Some of European proper names are Greek: Alexander, Andrew, Basil, Gregory, Luke, Nicholas, Pater; Angela, Barbara, Cora, Delia, Doris, Margaret, Penelope, Sophia.

    Some of widely used Latin borrowings are used contracted: a.d. (anno domini) –нашої ери , a.m. (ante meridiem) – до опівдня, cf.(confer)-порівняйте, i.e. (id est)- тобто, v., vs. (versus) – проти.

    Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought many Italian words into English. The earliest Italian borrowings came into English in the 14th century, it was the word «bank» (from the Italian «banko» – «bench»). Italian money-lenders and money changers sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered looses they turned over their benches, it was called «banko rotta» from which the English word «bankrupt» originated. In the 17th century some geological terms were borrowed: volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At the same time some political terms were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin. But mostly Italian is famous for its influence in music and in all Indo-European languages musical terms were borrowed from Italian: alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, opera, piano, violin. Among the 20th century Italian borrowings we can mention: autostrada, dilettante, graffito.

    Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant. There are the following semantic groups of them: trade terms (cargo, embargo); names of damces and musical instruments (tango, rumba, guitar); names of vegetables and fruit (tomato, potato, tobacco, banana, apricot).

    There were constant contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed words from one language into the other. Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as rouble, copeck, pood, vodka, and also words relating to nature, such as taiga, tundra, steppe etc.

    There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English through Russian literature of the 19th century: Narodnik, moujik, duma, zemstvo, volost etc. and also words which were formed in Russia with Latin roots, such as nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.

    After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into English, such as collectivization, udarnik, Komsomol etc. and also translation loans, such as collective farm, five-year plan etc.

    One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such as nomenclatura, apparatchik etc.



    9. International words. Etymological doublets. Assimilation.

    International words. It is often the case when a word is borrowed by several languages and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are, international,-e.g. philosophy, chemistry, biology, sport terms: football, baseball, tennis; foodstuffs and fruits imported from exotic countries: coffee, chocolate, banana, grapefruit, coca-cola; clothing:pullover, short, jeans. The English language also contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages: volley-ball, hockey, cricket, rugby, golf etc.

    Etymological doublets – pairs of words which have one and the same original form but which have acquired different forms and even different meanings during the course of linguistic development. E.g. the words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonetic shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing. Such words as these two originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonetic shape and in meaning are called etymological doublets.

    Assimilation – the process of adaptation of phonetic, grammatical and semantic features of the language. Assimilation is a general term in phonetics for the process by which a speech sound becomes similar or identical to a neighboring sound. In the opposite process, dissimilation, sounds become less similar to one another. For example, the Latin prefix in- 'not, non-, un-' appears in English as il-, im-. and ir- in the words illegal, immoral, impossible (both m and p are bilabial consonants), and irresponsible as well as the unassimilated original form in- in indecent and incompetent. In rapid speech native speakers of English tend to pronounce ten bucks as though it were written tembucks, and in anticipation of the voiceless s in son the final consonant of his in his son is not as fully voiced as the s in his daughter, where it clearly is [z]." Regressive assimilation- assimilation in which a following sound has an effect on a preceding one, as in pronouncing have in have to as [haf] influenced by the voiceless (t) in to. Progressive assimilation assimilation in which a preceding sound has an effect on a following one, as in shortening captain to cap'm rather than cap'n. Reciprocal assimilation -when both sounds (the assimilating and the assimilated one) under go changes. Historically this has occurred in words like: Soldier, picture or fissure. where the reconstructable earlier pronunciation /‘soυldjər/, /‘pıktu:r/, /‘fısju:r/ has become /‘səυldзə/,/‘pıkt∫ə/, /fı∫ə/

    In current colloquial English, similar assimilation occurs in phrases such as "What d’you want" /wt∫əwnt/ or

    Could you? /‘kυdZu:/.

    Translation-loans (калька). This term is equivalent to borrowing. Translation-loans are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonetic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation. It is obvious that only compound words can be subjected to such an operation, each stem being translated separately. E.g. collective farm (колгосп), wonder child (Wunderkind); five-year-plan (n 'ятирічка).



    10. Classification of morphemes from the semantic point of view.

    Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studied how groups of sounds are joint together to make words. A great many words can consist of smaller meaningful structural units called morphemes (morphe-form, logos – word, study).

    From the semantic point of view all morphemes are divided into root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes). The root is the lexical nucleus of a word. It is common to a set of words that make up a lexical word-cluster, e.g. act in act, actor, action, active, inactive; mean in mean, meaning, meaningful, meaningless. There exist many roots which coincide with root-words, e.g. man, son, desk, tree, black, red, see, look, etc.

    The affixes, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root and does not change the part of speech (unhappy, dissatisfied, rewrite, discover) and suffixes which follow the root and may change the part of speech (friendship, peaceful, worker, slowly, selfish, dusty).

    Words which consist of a root and an affix (or several affixes) are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word-building known as affixation (or derivation). (e.g. study – student, slow - slowly)

    The part of a word consisting of a root and an affix is called a stem. In English words stern and root often coincide. Stems that coincide with roots are known as simple stems, e.g. boy's, trees, reads etc. Stems that contain one or more affixes are derived stems, e.g. teacher's, governments, unremarkable etc.

    From the structural point of view morphemes fall into 3 types: free, bound and semi-bound morphemes.



    11. Classification of morphemes from the structural point of view.

    Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studied how groups of sounds are joint together to make words. A great many words can consist of smaller meaningful structural units called morphemes (morphe-form, logos – word, study).

    From the semantic point of view all morphemes are divided into root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes).

    From the structural point of view morphemes fall into 3 types: free, bound and semi-bound morphemes.

    A free morpheme can stand alone as a word, e.g. (friendly, friendship, unfriendly (friend).

    Bound morphemes occur only as constituent parts of words, e.g. freedom, greatly, poetic, depart, enlarge, deceive, receive, resist, etc.(cannot function as a word)

    Semi-bound morphemes can function both as affixes and as free morphemes (i.e. words), e.g. after, half, man, well, self (v)s. after-thought, half-baked, half-naked, , well-known,himself, oneself.

    Bound morphemes can be further classified as:

    1) derivational – when combined with a root, change either the semantic meaning or part of the affected word – a noun (happy – happiness)

    2) inflectional – modify a verb’s tense or a noun’s number without affecting the word’s meaning or class.

    (applying inflectional morphemes to words are adding –s to the root dog to form dogs and adding –ed to form waited).



    12. Word-formation. The main types of word-formation in English.

    English words fall into 4 main structural types: 1) simple words (root words) which have only a root morpheme in their structure, e.g. man, sky, pen, go, look, find, bright, ling, far, back.2) derived words (affixational derivatives) which consist of a root and one or more affixes, e.g. joyful, retake, undo, childhood, disagreement, reproduce, indifferent etc.; 3) compound words (compounds) in which 2 or more stems are combined into a lexical unit, e.g. classroom, whitewash, salesgirl, blackbird, forget-me-not, woman-doctor; 4)derivational compounds in which phrase components are joined together by means of compounding and affixation, e.g. long-legged, black-eyed, bald-headed, strong-willed.

    Word-formation is the process of creating new words from the material available in the word-stock according to certain structural and semantic patterns specific for the given language. Various types of word-formation in Modern English possess different degrees of productivity.

    Some of them are highly-productive (affixation, conversion, compounding, shortening); others are semi-productive (back-formation, sound-imitation); and non-productive (sound interchange, change of stress).



    13. Affixation. Suffixes. Prefixes.

    The affixes, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root and does not change the part of speech (unhappy, dissatisfied, rewrite, discover) and suffixes which follow the root and may change the part of speech (friendship, peaceful, worker, slowly, selfish, dusty).

    Affixation is the formation of new words with the help of suffixes and prefixes. HIGHLY-PRODUCTIVE TYPE.

    From the etymological point of view affixes are divided into native -er, teacher –ing singing, un-, mis-) and borrowed (-tion, -ment, -ist, -ism, anti-, re-, sub-).

    Suffixes have been classified according to their origin, parts of speech they served to form, their frequency, productivity and other characteristics. 1 Noun-forming suffixes: -age (bondage); -ance/-ence (assistance, reference); -ant/-ent (student); -dom (kingdom, freedom); -ее (employee); -er; -ess (actress, lioness); -hood (manhood); -ing (building, meaning); -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation; -ism/-icism (heroism, criticism); -ist (novelist, communist); -ment (government); -ness (tenderness); -ship (friendship). Adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble (unbearable, audible, soluble); -al (formal); -ic (poetic); -ical (ethical); -ant/-ent (repentant, dependent); -ary (revolutionary); -ate/-ete (accurate, complete); -ed/-d (wooded); -ful (delightful); -an/-ian (African, Australian); -ish (Irish, reddish, childish); -ive (active); -less (useless); -like (lifelike); -ly (manly); -ous/-ious (tremendous, curious); -some (tiresome); -y (cloudy, dressy). Numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (seventh); -ty (sixty). Verb-forming suffixes: -ate (facilitate); -er (glimmer); -en (shorten); -fy/-ify (terrify, speechify, solidify); -ise/-ize (equalise); -ish (establish). Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly); -ward/-wards (upward, northwards); -wise (likewise). Abstract nouns are signalled by the following suffixes: -age, -ance/ -ence, -ancy/-ency, -dom, -hood, -ing, -ion/-tion/-ation, -ism, -ment, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty.Personal nouns that are emotionally neutral occur with the following suffixes: -an (grammarian), -ant/-ent (servant, student), -arian (vegetarian), -ее (examinee), -er (porter), -ician (musician), -ist (linguist), -ite (sybarite), -or (inspector), and a few others. Feminine suffixes may be classed as a subgroup of personal noun suffixes. These are few and not frequent: -ess (actress), -ine (heroine), -rix (testatrix), -ette (cosmonette).

    Prefixes change the meaning of the root of the word, they do not change the category of a part of speech (e.g., happy – unhappy, adj, understand – misunderstand, v, fortune – hmisfortune, n). 1 The prefixes pre- and post- refer to time and order, e. g. historic: pre-historic, pay: prepay, view: preview. The prefixes in-, a-, ab-, super-, sub-, trans- modify the stem for place, e. g. income, abduct ‘to carry away’, subway, transatlantic. Several prefixes serve to modify the meaning of the stem for degree and size. The examples are out-, over- and under-. he group of negative prefixes is so numerous that some scholars even find it convenient to classify prefixes into negative and non-negative ones. The negative ones are: de-, dis-, in-/im-/il-/ir-, поп-, ип-. The general idea of negation is expressed by dis-; it may mean ‘not’, and be simply negative or ‘the reverse of, ‘asunder’, ‘away’, ‘apart’ and then it is called reversative. Cf. agree : : disagree ‘not to agree’ appear : : disappear, appoint : : dis-. appoint, disgorge, dishouse ‘throw out, evict’. /n-/ im-/ir-/il have already been discussed, so there is no necessity to dwell upon them.

    While prefixes typically maintain the word class (noun, verb, adjective, etc) of the word it's modifying, suffixes oftentimes change the form entirely, as is the case with «exploration» compared to «explore» or «highlighter» compared to «highlight».





    14. Classification of affixes from the etymological point of view. Semantics of affixes.

    The affixes, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root and does not change the part of speech (unhappy, dissatisfied, rewrite, discover) and suffixes which follow the root and may change the part of speech (friendship, peaceful, worker, slowly, selfish, dusty).

    Affixation is the formation of new words with the help of suffixes and prefixes. HIGHLY-PRODUCTIVE TYPE.

    From the etymological point of view affixes are divided into native -er, teacher –ing singing, un-, mis-) and borrowed (-tion, -ment, -ist, -ism, anti-, re-, sub-).

    Suffixes have been classified according to their origin, parts of speech they served to form, their frequency, productivity and other characteristics. 1 Noun-forming suffixes: -age (bondage); -ance/-ence (assistance, reference); -ant/-ent (student); -dom (kingdom, freedom); -ее (employee); -er; -ess (actress, lioness); -hood (manhood); -ing (building, meaning); -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation; -ism/-icism (heroism, criticism); -ist (novelist, communist); -ment (government); -ness (tenderness); -ship (friendship). Adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble (unbearable, audible, soluble); -al (formal); -ic (poetic); -ical (ethical); -ant/-ent (repentant, dependent); -ary (revolutionary); -ate/-ete (accurate, complete); -ed/-d (wooded); -ful (delightful); -an/-ian (African, Australian); -ish (Irish, reddish, childish); -ive (active); -less (useless); -like (lifelike); -ly (manly); -ous/-ious (tremendous, curious); -some (tiresome); -y (cloudy, dressy). Numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (seventh); -ty (sixty). Verb-forming suffixes: -ate (facilitate); -er (glimmer); -en (shorten); -fy/-ify (terrify, speechify, solidify); -ise/-ize (equalise); -ish (establish). Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly); -ward/-wards (upward, northwards); -wise (likewise). Abstract nouns are signalled by the following suffixes: -age, -ance/ -ence, -ancy/-ency, -dom, -hood, -ing, -ion/-tion/-ation, -ism, -ment, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty.Personal nouns that are emotionally neutral occur with the following suffixes: -an (grammarian), -ant/-ent (servant, student), -arian (vegetarian), -ее (examinee), -er (porter), -ician (musician), -ist (linguist), -ite (sybarite), -or (inspector), and a few others. Feminine suffixes may be classed as a subgroup of personal noun suffixes. These are few and not frequent: -ess (actress), -ine (heroine), -rix (testatrix), -ette (cosmonette).

    Prefixes change the meaning of the root of the word, they do not change the category of a part of speech (e.g., happy – unhappy, adj, understand – misunderstand, v, fortune – hmisfortune, n). 1 The prefixes pre- and post- refer to time and order, e. g. historic: pre-historic, pay: prepay, view: preview. The prefixes in-, a-, ab-, super-, sub-, trans- modify the stem for place, e. g. income, abduct ‘to carry away’, subway, transatlantic. Several prefixes serve to modify the meaning of the stem for degree and size. The examples are out-, over- and under-. he group of negative prefixes is so numerous that some scholars even find it convenient to classify prefixes into negative and non-negative ones. The negative ones are: de-, dis-, in-/im-/il-/ir-, поп-, ип-. The general idea of negation is expressed by dis-; it may mean ‘not’, and be simply negative or ‘the reverse of, ‘asunder’, ‘away’, ‘apart’ and then it is called reversative. Cf. agree : : disagree ‘not to agree’ appear : : disappear, appoint : : dis-. appoint, disgorge, dishouse ‘throw out, evict’. /n-/ im-/ir-/il have already been discussed, so there is no necessity to dwell upon them.

    While prefixes typically maintain the word class (noun, verb, adjective, etc) of the word it's modifying, suffixes oftentimes change the form entirely, as is the case with «exploration» compared to «explore» or «highlighter» compared to «highlight».



    15. Conversion as a type of word-formation. Parts of speech affected by conversion.

    Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. The term «conversion» first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet «New English Grammar» in 1891. Conversion is sometimes referred to as an affixless way of word-building or even affixless derivation. It consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily associated with it. This type is very productive in English and non-productive in Ukrainian. This type is characteristic of the English language due to its analytical structure.

    Conversion is the word formation process which make a new word by means of changing the grammatical category without changing the morphological structure. The most productive form of conversion in English is noun to verb conversion. name – to name, Google – to google, pocket – to pocket. Another productive form of conversion in English is verb to noun conversionto call – call, to laugh – laugh, to visit – visit.

    The 2 categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs, e.g. verbs made from nouns: hand, back, face, monkey, blackmail; nouns made from verbs: do (event, incident), go (energy), walk, worry, show, run;

    verbs made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to wet, to dry.

    Others parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following examples show: to down, to out, the ups and downs, the ins and outs.



    16. Composition (compounding). Structural types of compounds.

    Compounding (composition). It is the type of word-building in which a new word is produced by combining 2 or more stems.Compounds are characterized by formal ans semantic unity. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon: a) unity of stress; b) solid or hyphonated spelling; c) semantic unity; d) unity of morphological and syntactic functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood-vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow-white, sky-blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphonated spelling.Semantic unity means that the semantics of it’s components merged into a new common meaning.

    Compounding (composition) is one of the most productive types of word-building (alongside with affixation and conversion).

    There are 3 structural types of compounds:

    1) neutral compounds – their elements are placed one after another without any linking elements: blackbird, schoolboy, classmate, bedroom, sunflower,

    2) morphological – the elements are joined together by a linking vowel or a consonant:Anglo-Saxon, spokesman, statesman, handicraft, handiwork.Morphological compounds are very few in number. This type is non-productive;

    3) syntactic compoundsare segments of speech, the result of combination of a free

    word-group into one unit: lily-of-the-valley, Jack-of all-trades, good-for-nothing,

    mother-in-law, up-to-date, go-between. In this group of compounds we find a great number of neologisms.

    The structure of most compounds is transparent and clearly shows the origin of these words from word-combinations. The compounds whose meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their constituent parts are called idiomatic compounds, in contrast to the non-idiomatic, whose meaning can be described as the sum of their constituent parts. English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically, e.g. «These girls are chatter-boxes». «Chatter-boxes» is a predicative in the sentence and only the second component changes grammatically.



    17. Shortening. Types of shortening. Stylistic characteristics of shortened words. Back-formation.

    Shortening – the formation of a new word by cutting off a part of the word; is the process and the result of forming a word out of the initial elements (letters, morphemes) of a word combination.Shortening. There exist 2 main types of shortening: contraction and abbreviation.Contraction (clipping). Shortenings (or contracted words) are produced by making a new word from a syllable or two of the original word. The latter may lose its beginning (phone – telephone, story – history, plane – aeroplane), its ending (ad – advertisement, lab – laboratory, doc – doctor, exam – examination, math – mathematics) or both the beginning and the ending (flu – influenza, fridge – refrigerator, Liz – Elizabeth).

    Abbreviation (initial shortening) – noun by subtracting what was mistakenly associated with the English suffixes.





    18. Semasiology. Semantics. Lexical meaning (16+17+18).

    Semasiology is the branch of lexicology which studies the meaning of lexical units; is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics or meaning of linguistic units belonging to different language levels. The main objects of semasiological study are as follows: semantic development of words, its causes and classification, relevant distinctive features and types of lexical meaning, polysemy and semantic structure of word, semantic groupings and connections in the vocabulary system, i.e. synonyms, antonyms, etc.The modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of a word (i.e. the meaning) presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word. The main semantic structures of a word are monosemy and polysemy. Semasiology is the branch of lexicology which studies the meaning of lexical units; is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics or meaning of linguistic units belonging to different language levels. Semantics is a branch of linguistic which studies the meaning of language units.Meaning is a component of the word through which a consept is communicated.the meaning of a word is usuallyin a form of a structure that’s why it is called the semantic structure of the word.Lexical meaning reflects the concept expressed by the given word.



    19. Monosemy. Polysemy.

    Monosemy is the existence within one word of only one meaning. Monosemantic words are comparatively few in number. They are mainly scientific terms (biochemistry, cybernetics, bronchitis, molecule), some pronouns (this, my, both), numerals.M.- Words or phrases that have a single meaning; absence of ambiguity.Polysemy is the existence within one word of several connected meanings. One of them is the main (central) meaning, whereas the rest are associated (marginal) meanings. Polysemantic words constitute the bulk of the English vocabulary. E.g.: face (п.) 1) the front of the head (the main meaning); 2) the expression of the countenance; 3) the main or front surface; 4) the surface that is marked, as of a clock; 5) appearance; outward aspect; 6) dignity, self-respect (associated meanings).The word «polysemy» means «plurality of meanings», it exists only in the language, not in speech. A word having several meanings is called polysemantic. Most English words are polysemantic.



    20. Types of semantic components within a semantic structure of a word.

    The modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of the word (i. e. its meaning) presents a structure, which is called the semantic structure of the word. Semantic structure is generally known that most words includes several concepts and possess the corresponding number of meanings. A word having several meanings is called polysemantic, and the ability of words to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy. At the first level semantic structure of a word is treated as a system of meanings. For example, semantic structure of the noun fire could be roughly presented by this scheme (only the most frequent meanings are given) The second level of analysis of the semantic structure of a word. Within the semantic structure of the polysemantic words we distinguish between 2 components:

    1. denotative (expresses the concept, it is a semantic nucleas of a word)It is avoid of emotional colouring

    2. connotative (figurative, accosiated meaning) reflects additional semantic colouring of a word. It shows the possible associations between objects of real life.To understand correct connotative meaning context should be taken into account.





    21. Reasons of developments of new meanings. Linguistic metaphor.

    The process of development of a new meaning is called transference. It means that one and the same name is transferred from the object to the otner due to the similarity between them.The usual pattern of a word’s semantic development is from monosemy to polysemy, with two and more meanings developing into a complex semantic structure.The process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is traditionally termed transference. (The word may transfer from one referent onto another thus acquiring a new meaning).The type of transference based on resemblance (similarity) is called linguistic metaphor.It is fixed in dictionaries and belongs to the system of language. A new meaning appears as a result of associating 2 objects (phenomena, qualities, shape, function, position, colour, temperature, etc.) due to their outward similarity. E.g. box (a small separate enclosure forming a part of a theatre) developed on the basis of its former meaning (a rectangular container used for packing or storing things). Other examples of linguistic metaphor are: the teeth of a saw, the neck of a bottle, the eye of a needle, the foot of the mountain, to catch an idea, to grasp a chance (opportunity). Linguistic metaphor can be represented by nouns, adjectives, verbs.



    22. Homonyms. Traditional formal classification of homonyms.

    Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning. E.g.:Bank – a shore.Bank – an institution for receiving, lending, exchanging, and safeguarding money.Ball – a sphere, a round object used in games.Ball – a large dancing party.Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms. He pointed out three groups. Homonyms which are the same in sound and spelling are termed perfect homonyms (homonyms proper) (e.g. the given above ball, bank).Homophones are the same in sound but different in spelling. E.g.: night – knight, or – ore – oar, piece – peace, scent – cent, sent; to steal – to steel; son – sun; rite, n – to write, – right; sea – to see. Homographs – words which are the same in spelling but different in sound. E.g.: To lead – lead; to tear – tear; to polish – Polish, bow – to bow.

    Homonyms may be classified by the type of their meaning. In this case one should distinguish between:

    Lexical homonyms which belong to the same part of speech, e.g. light (легкий, світлий); club (клуб, кийок, клюшка); bear (терпіти, нести);

    Grammatical homonyms which belong to different parts of speech, e.g. row (гребти, ряд); weather – whether, brothers – brother’s;

    Homoforms which are identical only in some of their paradigm constituents, e.g. bore, n. – bore (p.p. bear); scent – sent; to found – found (p.p. find).





    23. Synonyms. Synonymic dominant. Classification of synonyms according to Academician V.V.Vinogradov.

    Synonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, differing in sound form, and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotative meanings. There are such main types of synonyms:

    1. ideographic synonyms which differ in shades of meaning but convey the same concept, e.g. to shake – to tremble – to shiver – to quiver; fast – rapid – swift – quick;

    2. stylistic synonyms which differ in stylistic characteristics, e.g. father – parent – dad (daddy) – papa – governor; to eat – to partake – to wolf – to lay in.

    Stylistic synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation. In most cases the abbreviated form belongs to the colloquial style, and the full form to the neutral style, e.g. examination – exam. Among stylistic synonyms we can point out a special group of words which are called euphemisms. These are words used to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words, e.g. the late instead of dead, to perspire instead of to sweat etc.

    Absolute synonyms are quite alike in their meanings and stylistic colouring. They are interchangeable in all contexts and are very rare, e.g. to moan – to groan, fatherland – motherland – homeland; word-building – word-formation; compounding – composition.

    Each group of synonyms comprises a synonymic dominant – the unit possessing the most general meaning of the kind which can substitute any word in the group, e.g. to shine – to flash, to gleam, to glisten, to sparkle, to glitter, to shimmer, to glimmer; red – purple, scarlet, crimson.

    In English there are a lot of synonyms because there are many borrowings, e.g. hearty (native) – cordial (borrowing).





    24. Antonyms. Classification of antonyms. Distribution of antonyms among parts of speech.

    We use the term “antonyms” to indicate words of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings, e.g. hot – cold, light – dark, happiness – sorrow, to accept – to reject, up – down.

    Antonyms fall into 2 main groups:

    1. root (absolute) antonyms (those which are of different roots), e.g. long – short, quickly – slowly, up – down, love – hatred, to start – to finish;

    2. affixational (derivational) antonyms (in which special affixes or their absence express semantic opposition), e.g. hopeful – hopeless, faulty – faultless, happy – unhappy, appear – disappear, regular – irregular.

    Polysemantic words usually have antonyms for each of their lexico-semantic variant (component of lexical meaning): a dull knife – a sharp knife, a dull boy – a bright boy, a dull novel – a thrilling novel.

    Antonymy is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of speech. Most antonyms are adjectives because qualitative characteristics are easily compared and contrasted: high – low, wide – narrow, strong – weak, old – young. Verbal pairs of antonyms are fewer in number: to lose – to find, to live – to die, to open – to close.Nouns are not rich in antonyms: friend – enemy, joy – grief, good – evil, frost – heat.

    Antonymic adverbs can be a) adverbs derived from adjectives: warmly – coldly, merrily – sadly; b) adverbs proper: now – then, here – there, ever – never, in – out.





    25. Phraseology as a branch of linguistics. Phraseological units, idioms and free word-groups.

    Phraseological inits, idioms and free word-groups.Phraseological units, or idioms represent the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary,examples: the apple of one’s eye; many men, many minds; to kick the bucket; to make the both ends meet; a black sheep; to cry over the spilt milk .Most Russian as well as Ukrainian scholars use the term «phraseological unit» which was first introduced by Academician V.V.Vinogradov. The term «idiom» widely used by western scholars. Phraseological units are stable word-groups characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning. Phraseological units exist in the language as ready-made units. The same as words they express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it.

    There are 2 major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units and word-groups: semantic and structural.The semantic shift affecting phraseological units does not consist in a mere change of meanings of each separate constituent part of the unit e.g. to have a bee in one’s bonnet means «to have an obsession about something; to be eccentric or even a little mad».

    In the traditional approach, phraseological units have been defined as word-groups conveying a single concept (whereas in free word-groups each meaningful component stands for a separate concept).

    The structural criterion also brings forth distinctive features characterizing phraseological units and contrasting them to free word-groups. e.g. a bee in smb’s bonnet – a bee in his hat (an error, a silly choice of words); to build a castle in the air – to build castles in the air; the early birds – early birds.





    26. V.V.Vinogradov’s system of phraseological units classification.

    Phraseological units are stable word-groups characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning. Phraseological units cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. The same as words they express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it.

    There are 2 major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units and word-groups: semantic and structural.

    The classification system of phraseological units made by Academician V.V.Vinogradov, was the first classification system based on the semantic principle. According to the classification based on the semantic principle English phraseological units fall into the following classes:

    1. Phraseological combinations – word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They are clearly motivated, the meaning of a unit can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents, e.g. to break silence, to make friends, to take into account, now and then.

    2. Phraseological unities – word-groups with a completely changed meaning; the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts. They are motivated units or, putting it another way, the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts. Phraseological unities, are much more numerous. to lose one's head – to be at a loss what to do; to be out of one’s mind; to lose one’s heart to smb. – to fall in love; a big bug/pot, si. – a person of importance.

    3. Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups, represent as their name suggests the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is com-pletely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional proper-ties. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal translation into other languages, cf.: to come a cropper - to come to disaster; neck and crop – entirely, altogether, thoroughly; at sixes and sevens - in confusion or in disagreement.



    27. The structural principle of phraseological units classification.

    The structural principle of classifying phraseological units is based on their ability to perform the same syntactical functions as words. In the traditional structural approach, the following principal groups of phraseological units are distinguishable:

    Verbal: to run for one’s (dear) life, to get (win) the upper hand, to talk through one’s hat, to make a song and dance about something, to sit pretty (Amer. si.);

    Substantive: dog’s life, cat-and-dog life, calflove, white lie, tall order, birds of a feather, birds of passage, red tape, brown study;

    Adjectival: high and mighty, spick and span, brand new, safe and sound, (as) cool as a cucumber, (as) nervous as a cat, (as) weak as a kitten, (as) good as gold (usu. spoken about children), (as) pretty as a picture, as large as life, (as) slippery as an eel, (as) thick as thieves, (as) drunk as an owl (si.), (as) mad as a hatter/a hare in March;

    Adverbial: high and low -* They searchedfor him high and low;

    by hook or by crook -* She decided that, by hook or by crook, she must marry him;

    for love or money -» He came to the conclusion that a really good job couldn 7 be found for love or money;

    in cold blood -* The crime was said to have been committed in cold blood;

    to the bitter end -*• to fight to the bitter end;

    by a long chalk -* It is not the same thing, by a long chalk.

    Interjectional: my God/by Jove! by George! goodness gracious! good Heavens! sakes alive!





    28. Proverbs, sayings, aphoristic familiar expressions. Systems for proverbs classification.

    Proverbs are short intelligent sayings that convey the essence of human experience about life, society, and the world. Such expressions are orally handed down from one generation to another. In addition to the long experience of human beings, proverbs also hold the essence of everyday wisdom, talent, spirit, tradition, education and folk beliefs of a society or a nation. Although they grow out of things of the past, proverbs concern contemporary life as well. Proverbs are epigrammatic: they may extend from a tiny sentence to a rhyming couplet, but convey a meaningful idea. These short statements are generally accepted observations of life based on experience. Proverbs change over time before taking a final shape. Sometimes a proverb may have regional variations.

    A proverb is generally considered to be a sentence which shows the following attributes: didactic character, picturesqueness, and minimum variability. Proverbs are witty. No other form of folk literature can express so much in such few words.

    Professor A. V. Koonin includes proverbs in his classification of phraseological units and labels them communicative phraseological units. From his point of view, one of the main criteria of a phraseological unit is its stability. If the quotient of phraseological stabil¬ity in a word-group is not below the minimum, it means that we are dealing with a phra¬seological unit. The structural type - that is, whether the unit is a combination of words or a sentence - is irrelevant.

    The criterion of nomination and communication cannot be applied here either, says Pro¬fessor A. V. Koonin, because there are a considerable number of verbal phraseological units which are word-groups (i.e. nominative units) when the verb is used in the Active Voice, and sentences (i.e. communicative units) when the verb is used in the Passive Voice, cf.:

    to cross (pass) the Rubicon « the Rubicon is crossed (passed);

    to shed crocodile tears «• crocodile tears are shed.

    As to familiar quotations, they are different from proverbs in their origin. They come from literature but by and by they become part of the language, so that many people using them do not even know that they are quoting, and very few could accurately name the play or passage on which they are drawing even when they are aware of using a quotation from W. Shakespeare.

    The Shakespearian quotations have become and remain extremely numerous - they have contributed enormously to the store of the language. Very many come from Hamlet, cf.:

    Something is rotten in the stale of Denmark;

    Brevity is the soul of wit;

    The rest is silence;

    Some quotations are so often used that they come to be considered cliches, hackneyed and stale phrases. Being constantly and mechanically repeated they have lost their original expressiveness, cf.:

    the acid test, ample opportunities, astronomical figures, the arms of Morpheus, to break the ice, the Irony of fate,



    29. Reasons for stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. Functional style.

    The word «style» comes from Greek word «stylos» that means «stick for writing». The word «style» is used in different branches of science.

    Functional style is a system of language means which fulfill and serve specific function in communication and which aim a definite effect (Illya Halperin «Stylistics»).

    Functional style is a system of expressing means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication (Арнольд Ірина Володимирівна).

    The social context in which the communication is taking place determines both the mode of dress and the modes of speech. When placed in different situations, people instinctively choose different kinds of words and structures to express their thought. The suitability or unsuitability of a word for each particular situation depends on its stylistic characteristics or, in other words, on the functional style it represents. The term functional style is generally accepted in modem linguistics. Professor I.V.Arnold defines it as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication.By the sphere of communication we mean the circumstances attending the process of speech in each particular case: professional communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, an intimate letter, a speech in court, etc. All these circumstances can be roughly classified into 3 types: stylistically neutral (basic vocabulary); formal (a lecture, a speech in court, professional communication) and informal (an informal talk, an intimate letter).



    30. Basic vocabulary. Neutral words.

    According to the stylistics, we use such vocabulary as:

    1. Neutral (basic)

    2. Formal

    3. Informal

    Neutral (basic) vocabulary is the majority, the bulk of the English language. These are words, used by everyone and everywhere. These are words of Indo-European and Germanic origin. These words are used in their denotative meaning. They are devoid of emotional colouring and they are easily recognizable. They have synonyms.

    Stylistically neutral layer (basic vocabulary) is the living core of the vocabulary. It consists of words mostly of native origin though it also comprises fully assimilated borrowings. These words are stylistically neutral, and, in this respect, opposed to formal and informal words. Their stylistic neutrality makes it possible to use them in all kinds of situations, both formal and informal, in verbal and written communication. These words are used every day, everywhere and by everybody, regardless of profession, occupation, educational level, age group or geographical location. These are words without which no human communication would be possible. They denote objects and phenomena of everyday importance (e.g house, bread, man, woman, sky, table, street, go, move, speak, easy, long, often, never, etc.). Such words are devoid of any emotive colouring and are used in their denotative meaning, without any additional information (connotations). In groups of synonyms neutral words fulfill the function of the synonymic dominant.



    31. Formal layer of the English vocabulary. Learned words.

    Formal words are called literary-bookish words, or learned words. But the term «learned» is not precise and does not adequately describe the exact characteristics of these words. Learned words are used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts, radio and TV announcements, official talks and documents, business correspondence, etc. As a rule, these words are mostly of foreign origin (borrowings) and have poly-morphemic structure, e.g. solitude, fascination, cordial, paternal, maternal, commence, assist, comprise, endeavour, exclude, heterogeneous, hereby, thereby etc. learned words are mainly associated with the printed page. But this is not exclusively so. Any educated English-speaking individual is sure to use many learned words which shows not only his professional skills but also the riches of everyday speech and broad outlook. So, the sphere of use of learned wofds is not always restricted to fiction, official or professional communication, but in common conversational speech. These words consist mostly of words of foreign origin. They are polysyllabic and pollymorphemic and mainly used in writing forms.

    Yet, excessive use of learned elements may present conversational hazards. Utterances overloaded with such words sound absurd and ridiculous. Writers use this phenomenon for stylistic purposes to produce a comic effect.



    32. Archaisms, historical words. Spheres of application.

    Archaisms (obsolete words) are moribund words, already partly or fully out of circulation, and having their synonyms in the living language. They may be found in historical novels (to create a particular period atmosphere), poetry, elevated style. E.g.: thou (you), thee (youObjective), thine (your), nay (no), moon (month), glee (joy), eve (evening) etc. As a rule, archaisms have synonyms belonging to the neutral layer of modern English vocabulary. Sometimes a lexical archaism begins a new life, getting a new meaning, then the old meaning becomes a semantic archaism, e. g. «fair» in the meaning «beautiful» is a semantic archaism, but in the meaning «blond» it belongs to the neutral style.

    Historisms (historical words) are words which denote objects or phenomena which no longer exist. These words are out of usage. They denote things which are out of use. Historical words have no neutral synonyms in Modem English. E.g. yeoman, arbalernt, archer, shire, knight, longbow, villain, burg, burgess. Historical words are used in historical films / fiction and historical places. It should be noted, that they are used in approriate situations.

    Neologisms are words and word-groups that denote new concepts, e.g. teledish (a dish-shaped aerial for receiving satellite television transmission), roam-a-phonefa. portable telephone), magalog (a large magazine-format catalogue advertising mailorder goods), etc. The present-day neologisms are used in the sphere of science and industry. The most popular way to form neologisms is blending (brunch, deskfest). They come from language and may become international words or borrowings.

    Term is a word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a particular branch of science, technology, trade or the arts to convey a concept peculiar to this particular activity. Examples of terms are as follows: Medicine: antiseptics, anaesthesia, analgesic, anaemia, sterile, stethoscope, skull, surgery, cardiology. Computing: cybercafe, cybercitizen, cyberspace, to debug, microbooster, to deblock. Mathematical terms: multiplied by, devided by, multiplication table. Linguistic terms: noun, verb, predicate, adverbial modifier, mood. According to their origin, they are international words or borrowings, mainly from Greek or Latin.



    33. Poetic words. Terms. Neologisms.

    Poetic words with elevated, «lofty» colouring are traditionally used only in poetry. Most of them are archaic and have stylistically neutral synonyms, e.g. lone (lonely), brow (forehead), woe (sorrow), behold (see), oft (often), array (clothes).

    Archaisms (obsolete words) are moribund words, already partly or fully out of circulation, and having their synonyms in the living language. They may be found in historical novels (to create a particular period atmosphere), poetry, elevated style. E.g.: thou (you), thee (you – Objective), thine (your), nay (no), moon (month), glee (joy), eve (evening) etc. As a rule, archaisms have synonyms belonging to the neutral layer of modern English vocabulary.

    Historisms (historical words) are words which denote objects or phenomena which no longer exist. Historical words have no neutral synonyms in Modem English. E.g. yeoman, arbalernt, archer, shire, knight, longbow, villain, burg, burgess.

    Neologisms are words and word-groups that denote new concepts, e.g. teledish (a dish-shaped aerial for receiving satellite television transmission), roam-a-phonefa. portable telephone), magalog (a large magazine-format catalogue advertising mailorder goods), etc. The present-day neologisms are used in the sphere of science and industry. The most popular way to form neologisms is blending (brunch, deskfest). They come from language and may become international words or borrowings.

    Term is a word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a particular branch of science, technology, trade or the arts to convey a concept peculiar to this particular activity. Examples of terms are as follows: Medicine: antiseptics, anaesthesia, analgesic, anaemia, sterile, stethoscope, skull, surgery, cardiology. Computing: cybercafe, cybercitizen, cyberspace, to debug, microbooster, to deblock. Mathematical terms: multiplied by, devided by, multiplication table. Linguistic terms: noun, verb, predicate, adverbial modifier, mood. According to their origin, they are international words or borrowings, mainly from Greek or Latin.

    34. Informal layer of the vocabulary. Characteristic features and spheres of application.

    Informal words and word-groups are traditionally divided into 3 types: colloquial, slang and dialect words and word-groups.

    Colloquial words are characteristic of the informal style of spoken English.

    One should distinguish between literary (standard) colloquial words as units of Standard English and non-literary colloquialisms that belong to sub-standard English vocabulary.

    Literary colloquial words are used in everyday conversations both by cultivated and uneducated people and are also met in written literary texts. They are closer to neutral words than to literary-bookish units, but, as a rule, have stronger emotional colouring. They are formed on standard word-formative patterns (contraction, conversion), e.g.: granny, birdie, baby-sit, daily (п.), pal, chum (friend), girl (a woman of any age), disco, do away, pram. Non-literary colloquial words include slang, jargonisms, professionalisms and vulgarisms, dialect words and word-groups.

    Informal words are traditionally used in oral communication (in speech). They are not fixed in dictionaries.

    They are divided into:

    1. Literary colloquial words. These words are used in everyday life by both educated and non-educated people. They are very close to the neutral meaning but they have their emotional colouring.They are used in their connotative meaning.

    2. Non-literary colloquial words (slang). Slang appeared in the beginning of XX century and then it spread to other countries. There are many approaches to definition «slang»:

    it is a specific vocabulary used by low and disreputable people;

     it is a specific language, which is below the standard language and decent communication.

    Slang words are highly emotive and expressive. They are sub-standard substitutes of neutral word based on metaphor. This metaphor has ironic colouring and is unpoetical. Slang words are short lived. They are easily substituted by other slang and lose their freshness. They can be learned only synchronically.



    35. Colloquialisms. Standard, non-standard vocabulary.

    A colloquialism is a word, phrase, or other form used in informal language. Dictionaries often display colloquial words and phrases with the abbreviation colloq. as an identifier. Colloquial language, colloquial dialect, or informal language is a variety of language commonly employed in conversation or other communication in informal situations. The word colloquial by its etymology originally referred to speech as distinguished from writing, but colloquial register is fundamentally about the degree of informality or casualness rather than the medium, and some usage commentators thus prefer the term casualism.

    Usage. Colloquial language is distinct from formal speech or formal writing. It is the variety of language that speakers typically use when they are relaxed and not especially self-conscious. Some colloquial speech contains a great deal of slang, but some contains no slang at all. Slang is permitted in colloquial language, but it is not a necessary element. Other examples of colloquial usage in English include contractions or profanity. In the philosophy of language, the term «colloquial language» refers to ordinary natural language, as distinct from specialized forms used in logic or other areas of philosophy. In the field of logical atomism, meaning is evaluated in a different way than with more formal propositions. A colloquial name or familiar name is a name or term commonly used to identify a person or thing in informal language, in place of another usually more formal or technical name.

    Examples. Someone in the United States who is referring to very heavy rainfall might say it is «raining cats and dogs». The person listening would have to understand from general usage that the animals are not falling from the sky during a rainstorm. Expressions used can mean completely different things outside of the country where the colloquialism is used. For example, a woman in London who had a conversation with a man might ask him to «knock me up tomorrow morning», which means to give her a wake-up call. A person from the United States would have no idea of the meaning of the sentence because in the U.S., the term «knock up» is colloquial for impregnate.

    It is a mistake to think of the «standard» variety of a language as the language, with dialects relegated to substandard status. Instead, by subscribing to the definition of «dialect» as a distinct variety, we are agreeing that the standard variety itself is a dialect.

    While the standard variety is regarded as a model for purposes that include language teaching and the general transmission of day-to-day information, structurally there is nothing inherently superior in the make-up of a «standard dialect»: non-standard dialects have vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation which are equally detailed in structure, and indeed are often imbued with pedigrees far older than those of the standard variety of the day.



    36. Slang. Professionalisms.

    Slang comprises highly informal words not accepted for dignified use. It seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English. The «New Oxford English Dictionary» defines slang as follows:

    1. the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type;

    2. the cant or jargon of a certain class or period;

    3. language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.

    As is seen from these definitions slang is represented both as special vocabulary and as a special language. Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech.

    Slang words, used by most speakers in very informal communication, are highly emotive and expressive. Such words are expressive sub-standard substitutes for current words of standard vocabulary.

    Jargonisms stand close to slang, also being sub-standard, expressive and emotive, but unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally or socially. The aim of jargon is to preserve secrecy within one or another social or professional group. Jargonisms are generally neutral words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of them are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them.

    Bird (rocket, spacecraft), garment (pressure space suit) – astronauts' jargon; Grass, tea, weed (narcotic) – drug addicts' jargon.

    Such words are usually motivated and, like slang words, have metaphoric character.

    Professionalisms are sub-standard colloquial words used by people of a definite trade or profession, usually connected by common interest at work or even, at home. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message. Such words are informal substitutes for corresponding terms. E.g.: nuke (nuclear), Hi-Fi (high fidelity), anchors (brakes), smash-up (accident) and the like.

    Professionalisms should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, they do not aim at secrecy. Here are some professionalisms used in different trades: Tin-fish (submarine), piper (a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream-pipe).



    37. Jargonisms. Vulgarisms.

    Informal words peculiar for certain social orprofessional group should be considered as jargonisms. Jargonisms stand close to slang, also being sub-standard, expressive and emotive, but unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally or socially. The aim of jargon is to preserve secrecy within one or another social or professional group. Jargonisms are generally neutral words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of them are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. Bird (rocket, spacecraft), garment (pressure space suit) – astronauts' jargon; Grass, tea, weed (narcotic) – drug addicts' jargon. Such words are usually motivated and, like slang words, have metaphoric character.

    Vulgarisms are coarse words with strong emotive meaning: words denoting the notions which are taboo in a given speech community, normallyavoided in polite conversation. Vulgarisms include: a) expletives and swear wordsof abusive character (e. g. damn, goddamn, bloody, son of a bitch, bastard, to hell); b) obscence (or taboo, four-letter) words which are highly incedent. The latter are not even fixed in common dictionaries. They are euphemistically called «four-letter» words. We should differentiate between 1) those which have lost shocking power and are not meant to abuse anybody; they serve as mere signals of strong emotions (e.g.) I know damn well. It was crazy dream. It’s a devilish job) and 2) those which are meant to offend, insult or abuse (e. g. the sun of a bitch; shut your bloody mouth!).



    38. Dialect. Groups of dialects in the British Isles.

    Dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, which is different from other forms of the same language, e.g. Yorkshire and Lancashire dialects.

    Linguists distinguish local dialects and variants of English. In the British Isles there exist 5 main groups of local dialects which developed from Old English local dialects: Northern, Western, Midland, Eastern, and Southern. Besides, there is Lowland (Scottish) dialect. These dialects, used as means of oral communication, are peculiar to comparatively small localities. They are marked by some deviations mostly in pronunciation and vocabulary, but have no normalized literary form.

    One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. Some peculiarities of this dialect can be seen in the first act of «Pigmalion» by B.Shaw: interchange of [v] and [w], e.g. wery veil; interchange of [f] and [O], interchange of |h] and [-], e.g. «'eart» for «heart», «heart» for «art»; substituting the diphthong fai] by [ei], e.g. «day» is pronounced [dai], e.g. «don't» is pronounced [do:nt]. Another feature of Cockney is rhyming slang: «hat» is «tit for tat», «wife» is «trouble and strife», «head» is «loaf of bread» etc.

    Regional varieties of English possessing literary form are called variants. In the British Isles there are two variants, Scottish English and Irish English.

    Scottish English. Scottish English refers to the varieties of English spoken in Scotland.

    The use of «How?» meaning «Why?»

    Cot and caught are not differentiated in most Central Scottish varieties,

    Certain vowels (such as /i/, /u/, and /æ/) are generally long but are shortened before nasals and voiced plosives, so that crude contrasts with crewed, need with kneed and side with sighed.

    Irish English. Speech in the whole of Ireland is for instance rhotic – that is speakers pronounce an <r> sound after a vowel in words like farm, first and better.

    Pairs such as pull and pool are often homophones.

    English, such as inserting a <y> sound after an initial <k> or <g> in words like car and garden, such that they sound a little like «kyarr» or «gyarrden». Northern Irish English also has a very distinctive intonation pattern and a broad Northern Irish accent is characterized by a very noticeable tendency to raise the pitch towards the end of an utterance, even if the speaker is not asking a question.



    39. American English vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar.

    American English begins its history at the beginning of the I7th century when first English-speaking settlers began to settle on the Atlantic coast of the American continent. The language which they brought from England was the language spoken in England during the reign of Elizabeth the First.

    The vocabulary used by American speakers has distinctive features of its own. American vocabulary exclusively and constitute its specific feature. These words are called Americanisms. The first group of such words may be described as historical Americanisms. The first English migrants began arriving in America at the beginning of the 17th century. The language they spoke was in its 17th c. form.

    E.g. fall – «autumn», guess – «to think», sick – «ill, unwell»

    The second group of Americanisms includes words which are specifically American and are called proper Americanisms. They were formed by migrants from the Old Country (England) to name the new and strange things they came across in the New World.

    E.g. backwoods, sweet potato ,cat-bird and others. These words are made of the «building materials» which are familiarly English; word-building patterns of composition and the constituents of the compounds are essentially English as well.

    Later proper Americanisms are represented by names of objects which are called differently in the USA and England.

    E.g. chemist'sdrugs, sweets – candy, underground – subway, . lift – elevator.

    Differences in pronunciation. In American English we have r-coloured fully articulated vowels, in the combinations ar; er, ir, or, or, our etc. In BE the sound [o] corresponds to the AE [^], e.g. «not». In BE before fricatives and combinations with fricatives «a» is pronounced as [a:], in AE it is pronounced [æ], e.g. class, dance, answer, fast etc. There are some differences in the position of the stress:



    40. Canadian English. Australian English.

    Canadian English. Spelling. The «rules» for Canadian spelling are not as cut and dried as someone might think. There are some regional variations. The great -our debate lies in the fact that only about 40 common words take -our, while many common words do not. Worse still, many words that take -our lose the extra letter when the words are elongated. Glamour becomes glamorous, honour becomes honorary and colour becomes coloration. However, the most recent version of the Gage Canadian Dictionary finally gave the -our spelling precedence.

    Vocabulary. Canadian English differs from American or British English in some of the ways. E.g.:

    Anglophone: Someone who speaks English as a first language.

    Bill vs. check: Canadians ask for the bill.

    Can vs. tin: Younger Canadians tend to eat out of cans, while older Canadians often eat out of tins.

    Chemist vs. drugstore vs. pharmacy: Canadians don't go to chemists, at least not when they need aspirin.

    Click: Canadian slang for kilometre. "I drove 50 clicks last week."

    Corn vs. maize: In Canada, corn is a specific cereal plant with yellow kernels. In England, corn refers to a broader range of cereals, including wheat, rye, oats and barley. What Canadians call corn, the English call maize.

    Elevator vs. lift: Canadians take elevators.

    Floor vs. storey: Floor is preferred in Canada. Note that the first floor of buildings in Quebec is actually the second floor in the rest of the country.

    Francophone: Someone who speaks French as a first language, opposed to an anglophone..

    Gas vs. petrol: Canadians fill the tanks of their cars with gas.

    Holiday vs. vacation: Canadians generally go on vacations.

    Honour guard: The Canadian equivalent is guard of honour.

    Railroads vs. railways: Canadians prefer railways. .

    Washroom: Canadians head for the washroom when they need to use the toilet. Bathrooms are places with bathtubs in them.

    Pronunciation. Generally, Canadian pronunciation is almost identical to American pronunciation, especially in Ontario. There are some small differences, however. Canadians tend to pronounce cot the same as caught and collar the same as caller. Many Canadians also will turn [t] into [d], so Iron Maiden will seem to be a "heavy-meddle" band, and the capital appears to be "Oddowa".

    Australian English. The Australians with British ancestors are the predominant part of the population. Australian pronunciation is more or less the Cockney one of the last 18th century. Australian English is different from any accent existing in England. Australianisms. Most of the Australian specialties in vocabulary derive from English local dialects

    Australian English  / British English

    this arvo / this afternoon

    weekender / holiday cottage

    The vowel system of Broad Australian is very similar to Cockney. Educated Australian is close to RP. The main specialties of the former is [ə] in unstressed position within a word where the English use [i], and the ending -y, which is pronounced [i]. Like in the American South [æu] occurs in words like pound. As for the consonants, there are no glottal stops. Some Australians, maybe due to Irish influx, produce rhotic words.



    41. Lexicography. Dictionary. The earliest dictionaries.

    Term lexicography comes from words lexis and graphis. Lexicography is the art and craft of compelling, writing and additing dictionaries.

    Term «dictionary» comes from Latin word «dictorium» and means a collection of a collection of words and word phrases. Dictionary is a list (collection) of words with their definition or corresponding words from a different language usually in one book. Dictionaries don’t have authors. There is a compiler or editor. It refers to the practical lexicography.

    Theoretical lexicography is

    Lexicographer is person who is professionally devoted to making dictionaries.

    In some languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the lemma form appears as the main word or headword in most dictionaries. Many dictionaries also provide pronunciation information; grammatical information; word derivations, histories, or etymologies; illustrations, usage guidance; with examples in phrases or sentences. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book

    One of the earliest dictionaries known was written in Latin during the reign of the Emperor Augustus. It is known by the title «De Significatu Verborum» («On the meaning of words») and was originally compiled by Verrius Flaccus during the 1st century AD. It was an abridged list of difficult or antiquated words, whose usage was illustrated by quotations from early Roman authors.

    Early English lexicography began in the Middle Ages. The need for an English-Latin dictionary grew slowly over time and it wasn't until 1440, when «Promptorium Parvulorum» appeared, that one was written.

    The first dictionary to be at all comprehensive was Thomas Blount’s dictionary «Glossographia» of 1566. It lists over 11,000 words. Blount defined words derived from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Saxon, Turkish, French and Spanish. He also explained specialist words. The «Glossographia» provided a substantial, and often complex, definitions for each word. Blount often refers to the words’ origins (or etymologies). This was the first monolingual English dictionary to explore the origins of words.



    42. The first printed dictionaries.

    Term «dictionary» comes from Latin word «dictorium» and means a collection of a collection of words and word phrases. Dictionary is a list (collection) of words with their definition or corresponding ords from a different language usually in one book. Dictionaries don’t have authors. There is a compiler or editor. It refers to the practical lexicography.

    The first dictionary to be at all comprehensive was Thomas Blount’s dictionary «Glossographia» of 1566. It lists over 11,000 words. Blount defined words derived from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Saxon, Turkish, French and Spanish. He also explained specialist words. The «Glossographia» provided a substantial, and often complex, definitions for each word. Blount often refers to the words’ origins (or etymologies). This was the first monolingual English dictionary to explore the origins of words.



    43. English dictionaries of the 17-20th centuries.

    Term «dictionary» comes from Latin word «dictorium» and means a collection of a collection of words and word phrases.

    Dictionary is a list (collection) of words with their definition or corresponding ords from a different language usually in one book.

    In 1604, Robert Cawdrey wrote «A Table Alphabetical». It was the first true English dictionary, Henry Cockeram produced the first work with the title «The English Dictionary» in 1623. It primarily dealt with 'difficult' English words.

    In 1674 John Ray produced a dictionary which dealt with dialect words.

    In 1702 John Kersey published «A New English Dictionary»; or, a complete collection of the most proper and significant words, commonly used in the language. As the title says, the attention of his work lay on the most used English words and not on peculiarities.

    «A Dictionary of the English Language», one of the most influential dictionaries in the history of the English language, was prepared by Samuel Johnson and published on April 15, 1755. The dictionary responded to a widely felt need for stability in the language. It took Johnson nearly 9 years to complete.

    In 1773 William Kenrick published «A New Dictionary of the English Language» («New Dictionary») which was an improvement to Johnson's dictionary regarding pronunciation.

    In 1806, Noah Webster's dictionary was published. «The Compendious Dictionary of the English Language» by Noah Webster possessed a large amount of encyclopedic material which has no connection with lexicography, like tables of the moneys, tables of weights and measures, an official list of the post-offices in the United States or the number of inhabitants in the States. This shows a clear emphasis on American issues and Webster laid much weight on the distinction between American and English usage.

    In 1846 Joseph's Worcester «Universal and Critical Dictionary of the English Language» was published.

    The most complete dictionary of the English language is the Oxford English Dictionary. The first edition was properly begun in 1860 and was completed in 1928,

    Today, dictionaries of languages with alphabetic and syllabic writing systems list words in alphabetical or some analogous phonetic order. The first English alphabetical dictionary came out in 1604 and alphabetical ordering was a rarity until the 18th century. Before alphabetical listings, dictionaries were organized by topic, e.g. a list of animals all together in one topic.



    44. Types of dictionaries.

    Term «dictionary» comes from Latin word «dictorium» and means a collection of a collection of words and word phrases.

    Dictionary is a list (collection) of words with their definition or ? corresponding ords from a different language usually in one book.

    There are many different types of dictionaries: bilingual, multilingual, historical, biographical, geographical etc.

    In bilingual dictionaries, each entry has translations of words in another language. For example, in a Ukrainian-English dictionary, the entry стіл has the corresponding English word, table.

    Multilanguage dictionaries are called translating dictionaries and they contain words and expressions of the native language and their foreign equivalents (or vs.)

    The dictionaries may be divided into:

  • general

  • special

    General dictionaries contain information on everyday words.

    Specialized dictionaries give information in particular fields and are divided according to the spheres of use.(terminological, etymological, the dictionary of synonyms etc.)

    Specialized dictionaries focus on linguistic and factual matters relating to specific subject fields, e.g. dictionary of idioms, dictionary of antonyms, Russian-English dictionary of medical terms etc.

    A glossary is an alphabetical list of terms in a particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms. The simplest dictionary, a defining dictionary, provides a core glossary of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts.

  • prescriptive

  • descriptive

    Descriptive dictionaries do not change the fact of the language, but describe them in the way as educated speakers and writers used them; attempts to describe the actual use of words (e.g. the Oxford English Dictionary)/

    Prescriptive dictionaries prescribe rules, some of which do not agree with the way people used to talk and write; prescribed the usage of words. (e.g. the American Spelling Book)

    Dictionaries may either list meanings in the historical order in which they appeared or may list meanings in order of popularity and most common use.

    Dictionaries also differ in the degree to which they are encyclopedic, providing considerable background information, illustrations, and the like, or linguistic, concentrating on etymology, nuances of meaning, and quotations demonstrating usage.

    Encyclopedia is a kind of a dictionary which provides a collection of ideas and facts; is a summary of information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge.

    Explanatory dictionaries gives definitions of word meanings. The information is given in the same language so they are always single-language dictionaries.


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