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Stylisti­cs: Comprehe­nsive Guide to Linguist­ic Analysis

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4th year, Galperin

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“Stylistics” an Introduction

Contents

1. Stylistics as a linguistic discipline

2. The notion of style

3. Stylistic markedness (SM)

4. Expressiveness, imagery, emotiveness, intensity.

5. Variation.

6. Expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD)

7. Spoken and written English.

8. The notion of stylistic function

9. Metaphor as a stylistic device.

10. Metonymy as a stylistic device

11. Epithet as a stylistic device.

12. Stylistic devices of zeugma and pun.

13. Antonomasia and oxymoron as stylistic devices.

14. Stylistic devices of simile and hyperbole.

15. Periphrasis and euphemism

16. Allusion and decompozition of set phrase.

17. Inversion and chiasmus

18. Repetition


19. Detached structures, climax.

20. Ellipsis, aposiopesis, question-in-the-narrative.

21. Asyndeton, polysyndeton, gap-sentance link.

22. Litotes and rhetorical questions

23. Represented Speech as a Stylistic Device

24. Onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance.

25, 26. Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary

27. The notion of functional style.

28. Literary English language

29. Literary prose

30, 31. Poetry. Rhyme, meter and rhythm

32. Lexical and syntactical features of poetry

33. The style of scientific prose of the English language.

34. The style of official documents.

35. The Newspaper style (NPS) of the English Language

36. Headlines in British NPs

37. The publicist style of the English language.

38. SD of Irony

39. Suspense and antithesis as stylistic devices.


1. Stylistics as a linguistic discipline

The name of Stylistics is given to many linguistic and literary studies and is loosely applied to various fields of theoretical studies and practicalities. Stylistics – no universally accepted and stable referent.

Two major approaches:

 In Britain, USA and some other countries – stylistics is the study of styles in literary (fictional, belles-letters) texts - художественные тексты. (M. Short, M.Toolan, H. Widdowson etc.)

M.Short, “Stylistics is an approach to the analysis of literary texts using linguistic description”.

In Russian tradition: the other approach – the study of styles of any language use from poetry to documents: st-cs is concerned with all types of texts (not only literary).

I. Galperin – “the investigation of the inventory of special language media, which by their ontological features secure the desirable effect of the utterance and certain types of texts”.

Over the last few years this approach has been gaining round even among Western linguists who analysed literary and non-literary texts from a stylistic PoV.

D.Crystal – “stylistics is the study of systematic variations in language use (style)”.

It’d be better to differentiate b-n ling. styl. (Гальперин: linguo-styl. analysis) & lit. styl. (Western ling. – литературоведение: analyses characters, exposition…)

(What is common: both focus on the research of expressive means and stylistic devices (EM & SD), which previously were studied in Rhetoric.) Stylistics is a subdomain of linguistics which concerns stylistic resources of the language and functional styles.

Styl. is a discipline of ling. and it intersects other areas of linguistics and other disciplines:

- sociolinguistics – St-cs is part of sociolinguistics as it doesn’t exist without a social situation; social l-ge varieties

- cognitive linguistics - appeared quite recently– relates linguistic units to our mind, relates stylistic factors in any lang. to the patterns and structures which exist in our mind, at the mental level

- rhetoric – the study of effective speaking and writing (persuasion)

- pragmatics –studies the factors which influence a person’s choice of l-ge means and any choice is made for purely pragmatic purposes; styl. is part of pragmatics; styl. overlaps with pragmatics in its study of relationships which exist b-n the writer & the reader & how the context can constrain/affect the choice of ling. units & their organization

- discourse analysis – deals with formal & funct-l organiz-n of l-ge means extending across discourses; disc. anal. moves investigation of disc. toward rich human contexts away from the preoccupation with pure structures  of mainstream ling. – mental activities

- literary studies (литературоведение) -  literary criticism, studies literary texts

- text linguistics

КИРА: Stylistics - the study of styles with the help of linguistic analysis.  St-cs deals with linguistic organization:

1)      there are stylistically marked lang. means;

2)      linguistic organization of stylistic texts – style is determined depending on the function (functional style); style is discussed in terms of difа. writers’ style of the texts (author, group of texts) in terms of text linguistics.

Functional styles are covered in linguostylistics. 


2. The notion of style

The term ‘style’ has acquired a lot of meanings in the course of history.

From Latin “stilus”. There are a lot of approaches to the notion of ‘style’ => many approaches to St-cs. Definitions:

-          a sort of decoration of the .....[read full text]

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4. Expressiveness, imagery, emotiveness, intensity.

            Expressiveness. Addressing the issue of expr. we can make a distinction b-n 2 major approaches. One group of linguists understanding it quite broadly equate it with emotiveness. Rather a huge number of ling. view expr. through the notion of the l-ge expressive functions, it’s related to the representation of emotions.

It’s the emot-l feelings that are communicated in the expressive functions (Jakobson). Irene Arnold – expr. of a word. A word has an expr. component in its mng if it intensifies what is named by the word through imagery or any other way. Builds a more composite image.

Expr. is a quality of a l-ge sign which affects the receiver’s imagination or emotional sphere (Russ. ling.). Expr. is a kind of intensification which should not be confused with emotiveness as emotiveness is an integral part of expr. (Гальперин)

According to St. Ullmann it is “an overlapping notion, between semantics and stylistics, it is the property of a l-ge unit which enhances the power and penetration of speech”.

Expr. could be first of all a str. of several dimensions and could be manifested through a diff. number of components. It could cover 4 components: imagery, emotiveness, intensity, evaluation (Pigs might fly). Sometimes – only 3 components (it’s extremely tremendous – without imagery). 2 components (aunty – emotiveness, evaluation).

Emotiveness - linguistic manifestation of emotions and is associated with emotive elements of language expressing a wide range of attitudinal meanings such as excitement, surprise, reserve, boredom, friendliness, humour etc. Emotiveness is a property of language units which allow to reveal the writer’s/speaker’s emotions and are designed to evoke similar emotions in the reader or in the partner.

            The most common linguistic expressions of emotions are conventional words or phrases: Gosh, Ouch, My, Wow etc.

Manifestation of emotions can take different forms:


        -                                                                    +                                                                            

He’s very tall.                                                Is he tall!

                                                                       How tall he is! 


I wish he were here.                                    If only he were here!

What’s this?                                What’s that? (dislike or aversion)


Imagery, expressiveness and emotiveness are related to emotional evaluation:

Large woman – fat woman

Nonsense – rubbish (conventionalised imagery – as it’s already found in dictionaries) – knickers

Economical – thrifty

Evaluation can be +/-, logical & emotional, qualitative/quantative

 ~this person is economical (logical)

~she is thrifty (emotional)

Expressiveness usually relies on imagery. Imagery - the mental picture that is created in our mind by figurative use of language. Imagery –.figurative use of language units. It is the ability of language sign to yield extralinguistic information about some people, objects, phenomena and their emotional evaluation with the help of a figurative expression.

It facilitates the recall of any text or any speech because they produce many associations. Reading is more difficult, but remembrance is longer. Visual imagery – represented by a picture, by some figure or affective/emotional imagery represented by ling. units.

Niagara of tears

-          How about your Russian after the holiday?

-          Got rusty.

Imagery automatically calls up expressiveness.


Intensity – making greater in amount strength or degree, the intention to emphasize a certain part of the text or message:

a wave o.....

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Common core ws, foreign ws are avoided + phrasal vs  Informal- casual (people know each other well, mainly English ws are used, no terms, no passive voice), intimate (between members of a closely knit social group or family, ws ununderstandable to others, inverted ws, gestures)

6.) Functional factor

Scholars differentiate registers (kind of lang typical of a certain situation), genres and types of texts.

Lang, unlike dialect can be used to produce literary written speech.

English common core: stylistically neutral, short words, have antonyms)


6. Expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD)

EM are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language as a system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance. Expressive means are registered in dictionaries, text books, encyclopedias as they exist in a language. EM are concrete facts of language.

Phonetic EM: can be represented by intonation, pitch, melody, stress, pausation, the change of voice (whispering) - indicate subtle nuances of meaning.

Morphological EM: You shall do it.

Word-building EM:

-          affectionate, diminuative, pejorative suffixes i.e. aunty, lambkin, piglet, ducklin, greyish; 

-          compound words: i.e. everydayish, ever-increasing area

            English writers can coin individual neologisms which function as expressive means (e.g. to be dinnerless).

Lexical EM: interjections, words which retain their connotative meaning (tremendous, huge) e.g. ‘lily’ means ‘purity’ (‘She is like a lily).

SD (acc.to Galperin) is a conscious and intentional intensification of some of some typical structural and/or  semantic property of a language unit promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative model. Generative model – sth. which generates some other expressions according to the same pattern. ‘Model’ here is sth. which is universal (a universal pattern).

(E.g. ‘My surgeon is a butcher’ - мясник = h.....

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- The spoken language by its very nature is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting.

- The spoken differs from the written phonetically, morphologically, lexically and syntactically. E.g. contracted forms, tag- questions, violations of grammar rules ( them instead of these/those

~ Them men have arrived).

- The most striking difference between the sp and wr E is in the vocabulary used. There are words and phrases typically colloquial on the one hand, and typically bookish on the other.  E.g, ~ I take it = I understand. To be gone on smb = to be violently in love  with.

- The spoken E makes ample use of interjections, “fill-ups”/empty words (~ and all, that’s it, you know, well,so to say, you see ) and mumbling words (~m-m, er).

- Syntactical peculiarities: ellipsis, unfinished sentences, inversion or direct order in questions.

- The common features of the written E: complicated sentence-units, connectives such as however, on the contrary, moreover, furthermore etc, bookish  words and w-combinations that are often called “space-wasters” because they have very pretty short equivalents, ~ in the matter of = about, despite the fact= although, in the capacity of= as, resembling in nature = like.


8. The notion of stylistic function


J. Richards distinguishes 4 types oа function in his book “Practical criticism” and 4 kinds of meaning:

1. Sense. 2. Feelin.....

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The same may happen with vulgar and jargon words.

Aesthetic function is typical for art or all arts. While stylistic function renders the evaluation of meaning which is social, psychological and individual in character. Stylistic function is realized within stylistic context and it may be characteristic of various models of discourse


9. Metaphor as a stylistic device.

SD is a developed structure, a model which leads a double life; a creative conceptual blend which involves a mode of thought (conceptual mapping – отображение, метафорический перенос) and individual linguistic expression bringing about a semantic of structural intensification of the utterance.

The theory of conceptual blending (conceptual integration – объединение) was proposed by Mark Turner (a liter. critic) and Gile Faoukonier (The theory of conceptual integration makes explicit some of the general principles which are behind our capacity to make connections in our life.

This capacity of making connections is visible in many contexts: in visual art, in scientific concepts, in religious symbols, in literary discourse, !!! in figurative language (язык метафор).

All SDs are multidimensional. The theory developed when scholars began to treat metaphor as a matter of thought.


Отсюда начинается то, что по вопросу! Хотя концептуальная метафора в вопрос вроде не входит.


The subject of Metaphor (M) has been the focus of much thought since at least Aristotel’s ‘Rhetoric’. Aristotel valued M for its effective and rhetorical properties. He pointed out the significance of M for reasoning (рассуждение), identified it as a displaced sign. He was mainly interested in the relationship between M and language and in the rol.....

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e.g. source domain – anger

target domain – fire + burn (‘Behind his soft spoken manner fires burned’)

The mapping is tightly structured. There are ontological correspondences according to which entities in the source domain correspond systematically to the entities in the target domain.

Conc. M can be part of everyday language.

e.g. to build theories

foundation for your theory

your theory needs more support

the theory is shaking

the theory collapsed

Conc. M expresses the general mechanism which underlines M as a SD.

(Конц. мет. опирается на устоявшееся выражение, поэтическая на креатив, творчество)


M as a SD -  involves both conceptual mapping and creative individual linguistic expression.

The structure of M as a SD: many researches distinguish two components:

-          tenor / focus / referent (= source domain)

-          vehicle / frame / agent (= target domain)

-          (some scholars find a third component – basis)

As a SD M has several definitions (in terms of classical theory):

-          M – a SD which imaginatively identifies one object / phenomenon / person with another dissimilar object and ascribes (приписывает) to the first one some of the qualities of the second.

-          Galperin (она давала): M is a SD where we can see the interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meanings (within interaction theory). In this case lexical meanings get realized simultaneously. (But some researches believe that M has only one meaning.)

-          M is based on the similarity between objects, people, phenomena and implies .....

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